...such as where to forage and for how long. To make these decisions animals should acquire information from the environment. The questions we may ask include: Should a predator eat only the most nutritious prey? What other factors should be taken into account in its choice of prey? To optimise a diet Different foods have different values. In order to optimise a diet, a forager must be able to distinguish between different food items and select the most profitable. This holds for all predators, insects, parasitoids, etc… Many studies have shown that foragers prefer the most profitable food, eg: the size of mussels preferred by crabs was calculated by being the most profitable. Mussels that are too small have a very low energy content while very large ones require a lot of effort (time and energy) to open. So, should the forager only eat the most profitable food items? To what extent should it include less profitable food in its diet? This depends on how long it takes to find the most profitable ones, i.e. how abundant they are both in general and in relation to other food items. The longer the forager has to spend looking for each food item, the more energy it uses, therefore the...
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...nutritional consequences for the people that belong to foraging societies. Foragers have necessitated meeting their caloric needs through long-standing supplies of food, both qualitatively and quantitatively, to avoid malnutrition or starvation. Hunting and gathering have provided them with about the same amount of proteins, although they have needed to collect large quantities of edible plants to equal the outcome of proteins supplied by the relatively small pieces of meat. However, gathering has been less energy consuming than hunting because foragers could more simply locate vegetables in the forest or in the open ground than animals but even the scavenged animals have required humans covered longer distances to amass available carcasses than to cover distances to accumulate vegetable food. The major suggestion of the simultaneous use of hunting and gathering has been the development of a generalized alimentation through a mixed diet. Such a varied nutritional regime offers the foragers flexible eating habits that allow them to preserve a high income of proteins, even in times of scarcity of either animal flesh or eatable vegetation, and consequently escape starvation. Secondly, the contrast between hunt and gathering allows appraising the structural repercussions in foraging societies. In the light of the foraging techniques, including hunting and gathering, one is not amazed to discover that the foragers give emphasis to a division of labor based on gender. For example, in...
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...University Homework assignment questions Chapter 6 1. There are several basic differences between foragers and food producers. First groups show strong dependency on environment. They hunted, gathered nutritive plants, insects and other. Such communities easily moved from one place to another because of season or other circumstances. Because of mobility foragers didn’t have goal to accumulate valuables. Members of communities had equal access to sources. Food producers had different behavior. These people also depended on environmental factors, like access to water. But they didn’t use only nature’s benefits. Food producers developed them for own good. They cultivated land, planted crops and domesticated animals. Depending on group's type food producers used more complicated instruments, created more surpluses and had different social structures. Foraging and agriculture. Foragers used only what they gathered or hunted. But still such societies spent near 42 hours per week for “foraging for food, making and repairing tools, and food preparation and other household maintenance” (“Chapter 6”, n. d., p. 11). In agricultural societies people needed to prepare land, control weed, care about animals and do other work. But technical development helped to replace manual labor with mechanisms in many cases. People spent less time to do more work. But, compared to foragers, agricultural societies needed more time and efforts, because they wanted to produce more food and...
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...2012). The waggle run contains the most vital information about the food source by sharing not only the distance but the direction of the food source from the hive to other nest mates (Frisch 1967; Toufailia et al. 2012). Due to Karl von Frisch’s data, we know that dance followers are able to use the information in the waggle dance to find the indicated food source (Biesmeijer & Seeley 2005). Previous studies have found that depending on the quality of the food source, a worker bee may perform up to 100 waggle runs in a single dance (Frisch 1967; Seeley et al. 2000). But how many waggle runs do other bees need to follow until they can accurately locate the food source? It was proposed that it only took foragers 5 waggle runs to obtain enough information to...
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...THE BATEK OF MALAYSIA “An Original People” Carolyn Holmes Cultural Anthropology Prof. Kathryn Cohan July 1, 2013 Introduction In this peaceful society, lives a tribe called the Batek, an Orang Asli society in Malaysia, meaning “Original People”. This tribe is known for being peaceful, and consider themselves as forest people because the forest is their home, and if any form of violence should occur; the person or persons will be ostracized from their community. Their belief is that if you become ill, it is because someone is angry with you without cause, and that person should make it right. Their gender relations consist of men and women working together. The men hunt while the women gather, as in most cultures where there are various foraging bands and tribes. Their social change is their sense of self and sharing. They strongly believe in sharing, and teach their children the importance of their ethics. They believe not only food, but other goods as well. Based on the Batek cultural beliefs and value, gender relations, and social change, how different is their culture from that of ours? Considering they are an egalitarian society. The Batek of Malaysia is a foraging community of people from a nuclear family that live a nomadic lifestyle. They maintain their way of life through hunting, gathering, and trading forest products. The Batek tribe is known for being a peaceful society. In some societies...
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...Fa"Fad diet" is a term of popular media, not science. Some so-called fad diets may make pseudo-scientific claims. According to one definition, fad diets claim to be scientific but do not follow the scientific method in establishing their validity. What is a fad diet? There are many different definitions of what a fad diet consists of. One definition is any weight loss plan that quickly gains popularity and may become unpopular just as quick. A more specific definition is any weight loss program or aid that promises to produce dramatic weight loss in a very short amount of time. Each type of fad diet varies in the amount of food that is restricted and what types of foods may be restricted. Are fad diets healthy? The basis of these diets is usually a very restricted diet that may even eliminate certain food groups all together. Research has shown that in order to obtain the amount of nutrients our body needs on a daily basis we must consume a balanced and varied diet. Fad diets do not allow consumers to eat a well-balanced diet in most cases which causes the lack of nutrients to the body. In particular, the diets that eliminate certain foods from a person’s diet completely put the person at risk for nutrient deficiencies. Many of the diet authors will suggest that consumers take daily supplements to make up for the lost nutrients; however supplements do not provide all the plant chemicals and nutrients that our bodies need to function properly. Another risk of these diets...
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...actual behavior. In the San kinship system, both family and kinship relationships are recognized and valued through the practice of marriage, sharing, and generalized reciprocity. Kinship also means time for socializing with kin and friends. Meals are prepared with the items from everyone’s hunting and gathering which allows everyone to share equally in what has been made available. Food is distributed until everyone is sufficiently supplied. Generalized reciprocity is practiced which helps to reinforce social ties. Sharing is a way of bonding families and strengthening relationships amongst neighbors, parents, siblings, and spouses. Nowark and Laird (2010), stated, “Generalized reciprocity helps foragers in times of environmental unpredictability. Sharing is the foragers' safety net.” (ch. 3, sect. 3.3, Economy, Generalized Reciprocity,...
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...shamanism is strictly a hunter-gatherer practice and is a part of their way of life (Winkelman 1990: 328; Lewis-Williams 1992: 58; Lewis-Williams & Dowson 1988). Problematically, shamanism has been made a universal trait of the ‘hunter-gatherer way of life’ (Lewis-Williams 1992: 58; Winkelman 2002: 175-177). Viewing shamanism as a universal and cross-cultural religion disregards any historical context (McCall 2007:225), strips these modern societies of their diversity and variability (Klein et al 2002: 387; McCall 2007: 225) and places them all inside the same box. This ‘shamanism model’ (Lewis-Williams 1981) makes modern foragers appear as a universal that is static and unchanging (Quinlan 2000; Klein et al 2002: 387; McCall 2007: 225). Furthermore another model based on the three stages of trance (Lewis-Williams & Dowson 1988: 203) makes use of modern forager cosmology in order to interpret certain universal features in rock art (Lewis-Williams & Dowson 1988: 202; McCall 2007: 226). The art has features possibly indicating universal entoptic phenomenon that occur during an altered state of consciousness (or ASC) (Lewis-Williams & Dowson 1988: 202). However, the fact that only drug induced ASCs (by the use of psychoactive plants during prehistoric times) apply to this model is ignored (Helvenston & Bahn 2003: 213). Additionally, the availability of psychoactive plants was not always prominent around world rock art sites (Helvenston & Bahn 2003: 213-215). Further studies (Helvenston...
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... The Nayar of India is made up of numerous castes of a society still based off of many old traditions. This specific society has drawn much attention and controversy over issues of marriage and kinship. However there are other intriguing aspects of their culture such as descendant lineage, religious beliefs, and methods of healing. Most recently studied aspects of social and economic organization further fascinates anthropologists to attempt to answer “who are the Nayar?” There are many different ways in which a society can structure itself in order to ensure its’ survival. In past times, the Nayar would be described as being foragers, that is, people who hunt animals and gather plant life for subsidence. As time went on, populations grew which resulted in a change in social structure. With a need for increased food and resources, many foragers turned into horticulturists. Permanent settlements were established and plants were intentionally grown through the use of agricultural activities. Like many other societies, the Nayar followed a path similar to this which led to the formation of a state. As defined, “a state is a polity with a centralized government and the power to collect taxes, draft men for labor and work, and make and enforce laws for communities within its territorial borders” (Carneiro, 1970). But that doesn’t completely explain why the Nayar are considered a state. To do this, we can look at specific traits that can be seen only in state societies. First...
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...Essay #1 - What are the four fields of anthropology and how do they relate to each other and to history, sociology, political science, philosophy and psychology. The four fields are: Physical Anthropology, Archaeology, Linguistic Anthropology, Cultural Anthropology or Ethnology. Anthropology is the study of humankind which can entail uniqueness, racial division, physical characteristics, geographical division and social relations of his or her environment. Anthropologist tries to discover if there are structural similarities and all four subfields bridge the gap between the knowledge and the human race. Physical anthropology is the human adaptation or alteration comes from this research for example genetics and forensics. Archaeologists seek and examine artifacts whether it is trash, historic or prehistoric. Linguistic anthropology is how language is used and acquired in a social network of humans historically from caveman’s to modern language today. Cultural anthropology or ethnology is the study of progressive culture throughout the world. Political Science relates to anthropology is tremendous as modern research is racial divide, customs and habits of man which has helped us the real background and development of the primitive man or woman. The behavior of man is biased by his racial origin and surroundings in which he or she resides. Sociology is the study of human culture or societal relations which relates to our four subfields of anthropology as sociology is part of...
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...Inuit of the Artic Kinship ANT 101: Introduction to Cultural Anthropology September 29, 2012 As we study anthropology we ask ourselves the question, what is anthropology and what is the meaning of cultural? In the studies we learn that anthropology is the study of people, their origins, and their cultures. We learned that cultural is the system of government, style of dress or even types of sexual behavior and food. So we put together the words cultural anthropology and the text tells us it is “the comparative study of human cultures with the objective of deepening our understanding of the human condition” (Laird, 2010). With all this to reflect on, this writer will discuss the kinship systems of the Inuit people and their cultural and how it affects them. “The kinship among people is described as is a relationship between any individuals who share a genealogical origin, through biological, cultural, or historical descent. It is one of the most basic principles for organizing individuals into social groups, roles, categories, and genealogy” (Versatile, 2011). The kinship system among the Inuit is describe as the lineal system of terminology emphasizes the nuclear family by specifically identifying mother, father, brother, and sister, while merging together all other relatives such as maternal and paternal aunts, uncles, and cousins, without differentiating among them. An example, one's father is distinguished from his father's brother (uncle) but one's father's brother...
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...Running Head: MAORI Page 1 The Mighty Maori Ericka Silva ANT101 Intro to Cultural Anthropology Katie Custer Mar. 4, 2013 Running Head: MAORI Page 2 The Mighty Maori The Maori were people that were said to have come from Tahiti and arrived in New Zealand in the 14th Century time frame. They came in what was called “the seven canoes of the great fleet”. (Latham, C; 1996) They are considered to be Polynesians and originally had found their home in the top parts of New Zealand. They are what we call “foragers” in the Anthropology world. Foragers are those cultures that hunt and gather from the land in which they live on. (Nowak, B/Laird, P; 2010) In the following pages I will describe how this culture lived and survived. I will describe how their ways of life were and events that came about. In 1350 they were a tribe that migrated from the Polynesian islands and had made their way to New Zealand. These foragers came in a mass group and were mostly hunters and fishermen. When they migrated they had brought their own plants and animals that they had domesticated themselves. Unfortunately most of it did not make it through the travel because the climates were too different and the animals and plants were not used to the new land. For many centuries these people survived and flourished in their new land. The Maori have a unique way of believing that there are supernatural ways that help them. They believed in the spiritual aspect of things from...
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...The San (“Bushmen”) People Luis M. Cruz ANT 101 Introduction to Cultural Anthropology Megan Douglass April 1, 2013 The Photograph Below is of the San ("Bushmen") People, they reside in the Kalahari Desert of Southwest Africa and are known as one of the best hunting and gathering communities in the modern world, (Marshall, J, 2011). [pic] Source: by John Marshall copyright 2011 Documentary Educational Resources The San people are a foraging tribe, they are traditionally a band society made up of families and relatives. Foraging bands such as the San survive by going where there is an abundance of food and water. They practice a gender based division of labor just like many other foraging bands, for the most part the women care for the children and search for suitable for eating vegetation, while the men hunt for the meat and provide other skills such as making tools like blowpipes, darts, and digging sticks. The San's people are hard workers and do what is needed to support the social order, but the San people are also a relaxed people who enjoy each other’s company and heavily rely on each other for the bands continued existence. Social ties are considered very important in this band society because no one person can simply be thinking of their own benefit over the groups. The San meals are an example of the communities methods, every bit of their food is gathered together for...
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...team and go to the Savannah. Whenever there was it at an opportunity, during this march, the Sheman burned down a building and plunders necessary supplies such as the food. He reduced the morale of the Confederate Army. If he fought in Europe, his requisitions from the local population would most likely have been met with strong opposition from magistrates or civil authorities. However, given the fact that during the Civil War country was sparsely settled he used it to his advantage in foraging – this is the main reason he could not use European tactics. Undoubtedly, in some cases foraging went well beyond the assigned tasks. Even General himself admitted: “many acts of pillage, robbery and violence were committed by these parties of foragers; for I have since heard jewelry taken from women and plunder of...
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...The Batek of Malaysia The Batek of Malaysia The Batik is an indigenous tribes living in the rainforest of the peninsula of Malaysia. They live in camps composed of five to six nuclear families. They are mostly foragers although the occasionally practice horticulture. To survive the tribes relies on hunting, gathering and trading rattan or forest products. Malaysia is on the south Malay Peninsula and stretches from the Thai border down to the island of Singapore. The population of Malaysia is about twenty-three million. The main idea of the research is to provide a basic understanding of the Batek behavioral and cultural lifestyle. In this paper, you will see how this culture shares their kinship, the role of gender relation, their belief and values, and other distinct cultural action unique to the Batek. The Batik people are a foraging culture. They are reliant on the land and their success is dependent on the values instilled in the camp. These camps made up of “three to six nuclear family members. The nuclear family is the most common type of family in foraging societies. A nuclear family is composed of a mother and father and their children. The nuclear family is most common because, in a foraging setting, it is adaptive to various situations.”(Endicott, 1981). These camps live in groups and move from place to place so they can hunt, dig tubers, and gather goods from the forest. Both the men and the women share the same amount of work in order to take care...
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