...measures experiment. They were shown two sheets of visual images, one of which was organised into categories, while the other one was uncategorised. Recall was significantly higher in the categorised condition. This supports the view that organised materials can provides cues, even when they do not appear obvious. The study suggests that cues are also available for visual material, not just verbal material. Introduction Memory is a very complex and interesting area of psychology. It can take several different forms and is made up of a variety of different cognitive and social processes. As memory is a regularly occurring phenomenon which an individual will use every day, it is important to carry out research into the different aspects of memory to gain a better understanding of it and to be able to manage and control it. There has been a lot of interest in improving memory through organisation. Miller (1956) showed that one way of improving recall from short-term memory is by ‘chunking’ the information as it comes in. This is the process of breaking a large object, such as a phone number down into several smaller sections to make it easier to remember. There has been more work carried out into recall from long-term memory, where items have recently been presented and/or learned. Mandler (1967, cited in Gross, 1996) used a pack of 52 cards with a word printed on its back and asked participants to organise them into seven columns. Half of the participants...
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...selective attention, which is the ability to focus on one stimulus from among all sensory input. Is known that some memory theorists use the term working memory as a synonym of short-term memory. This is not entirely correct, because in one hand short-term memory has been though as a place into where information is put. In the other hand we have that Working Memory is though as an active system that processes the information present in short-term memory. Digit Span Test is a memory test in which a series of number are shown to subjects, who are then asked to recall the numbers in order. I am going to show you a video where we can see how the digit span test works. Chunking is known as the process of recoding or reorganizing the information, Which is one way to held more information in short-term memory, by combining this information into meaningful units or chunks. Lets say we have a sequence of 10 numbers, one way to chunk is seeing this sequence as a phone number, so instead of having 10 separate bits, there would be only three chunks. Maintenance Rehearsal is one way of remembering information by repeating it over and over in order to maintain it in the short-term memory. The duration of the Short- Term Memory lasts about 12s to 30s without rehearsal and it is susceptible to interference. For example, when you get interrupted, and have the necessity of start over because you forget what were you saying. DIGIT SPAN...
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...Memory 1. Describe STM and give an example Short-term memory, also known as primary or active memory, is the information we are currently aware of or thinking about. In Freudian psychology, this memory would be referred to as the conscious mind. The information found in short term memory comes from paying attention to sensory memories. A good example would be to write down a spoken telephone number before it is forgotten. 2. Describe and give an example of LTM Long-term memory refers to the continuing storage of information. In Freudian psychology, long-term memory would be call the preconscious and unconscious. This information is largely outside of our awareness, but can be called into working memory to be used when needed. Some of this information is fairly easy to recall, while other memories are much more difficult to access. A good example would be recalling the date of your wedding anniversary or families birthdays’. 3. Describe the multi-store model of memory Multi-store Model of Memory: Atkinson & Shiffrin (1968) This model builds on the idea of three memory stores and tries to explain how they work together. Components Sensory Memory stores the incoming information from the senses. The model assumes that these are modality specific that is there is a separate store for each of the five senses. The store is very brief and the vast majority of information is lost here. Only information that is relevant or important is attended to and passed...
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...information at one time, Secondly the phonological loop stores a limited amount of speech-based sounds for quick periods. It contains two components. The phonological store (inner ear) allows acoustically coded items to be stored for a brief timing. The articulatory control process (inner voice) allows subvocal repetition of the items stored in the phonological store. Repetition can be prevented by a technique known as ‘articulatory suppression’. The visuo-spatial scratch pad (inner eye) stores visual and spatial information. It is responsible for setting up and manipulating mental images. It has a limited capacity but the limits of the system are independent. The episodic buffer interrogates and manipulates material in the working memory. It has a limited capacity, depending a lot on executive processing. It is capable of binding together information from different sources into chunks/episodes. It interrogates material from LTM to meet the requirements of working memory. The working memory model has many advantages which are that it explain about the storage but also it explains about the process of the information. The model proposes specific and separate functions and subsystems, new predictions and hypotheses can be drawn up for testing. It is consistent with records of brain damages patients, the visuo-spatial sketch pad is made of two parts, the visual cahce which stores information about colour and from and the...
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...There are two main types of memory, short term and long term memory; short term memory has a limited capacity and duration. Capacity is, the amount of information someone can store in their memory. The capacity of short term memory is between 5-9 things. Coding is the format of which things are stored in our memory. Duration is the amount of time we can remember something for. Short term memory has duration of between 18-30 seconds. There have been various amounts of research done by different people on capacity, duration and coding. Firstly research on capsid was done by joseph Jacobs. Jacobs developed the theory that how much someone could remember could be tested by using digit span. During this test a research would read 4 digits and a participant would have to read the 4 digits back, if the participants read them back correctly the researcher would then 5 digits and the participant would do the same before. This process was repeated increasing the number of letters by one each time until the participant got one of them wrong. This process was done with numbers and letters, doing this determines the duration of someone’s digit span. With this research Jacobs found that the mean across all participants was number of times was 9.3, the mean across letters was 7.3. This research was very useful but it did have its downfall. Jacobs research was lacking in validity, there could have been a lot of confounding variables that wouldn’t have been controlled things like, the participants...
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...Memory Psy105 The definition of memory is: the mental capacity or faculty of retaining and reviving facts, events, impressions, etc., or of recalling or recognizing previous experiences (Dictionary.com). There are three different types of memory Sensory, Short-Term and Long-Term memory. Sensory memory is memory that is seen by the eye that the mind keeps as a referencing point for a short period of time. This type of memory gives the eye a larger field of view. The eye’s field of vision is actually very small, but sensory memory retains images that he eye has already seen. This type of memory retains this information for a short period of time that way the eye will remember things it has already seen and doesn't have to reprocess all new information every time it sees something in view. The next form of memory is Short-Term memory. This type of memory is also known as primary or active memory. Freud referred to this type of memory as the conscious mind; active memory goes along with sensory memory just taking it to the next step and retaining those same images for a longer period of time. Short term memory is like RAM in a computer. Now short term holds memories for longer than sensory memory, but does not hold it forever there is another type of memory just for long sustained memory. The type of memory that is sustained for a long period of time is referred to as Long Term memory. This type of memory is referred to as the unconscious by Freudian psychology. The...
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...What is memory? Memory is involved in all aspects of our lives, is it a cognitive thinking process or a way of retaining information or is it a number of connected stores or even actual information retained. According to Reber (1985), it is possibly all of these. Memory has not been defined as a single process or fact and several theories exist about its nature, character and structure. We have vast amounts of information stored in our memory systems which we are able to access quickly and effortlessly, this implies that knowledge stored must be highly organised to allow us to retrieve the appropriate information for a given situation. This organising will be determined by the way that information is encoded into memory. The way the knowledge is organised will determine the type of process required to access that information in the future. Atkinson and Shiffrin (1969) suggested that memory comprised of three separate stores. The sensory memory store, the short-term memory and the long term-memory each store has a specific and relatively inflexible function. This was called the multi-store model. There are two main memory stores short term memory (stm) and long term memory (ltm),they are studies in terms of there ability to encode, which means make sense of information, also by there capacity, how much information is stored and by duration ,how long the information can be stored. How does the short-term memory store work? Conrad (1964) suggested that short-term...
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...Effect’s Theory: During the experiment, it was more difficult to indicate the color ink that the word was shown in when the word itself indicated a non-corresponding color. This is the Stroop Effect: the finding that people identify the color of a word more slowly when color and word are incongruent (for example, the word BLUE printed in a red color) than when color and word are congruent (for example the word BLUE printed in blue). But why is identifying the color of a word in the incongruent conditions difficult? Recognizing words has become an automatic process; even without deliberately attending to the word, we can't help but recognize the meaning of the color words (called semantic activation). This sets up a competition between two responses - the color that you want to name, and the automatic activation of the color word. Because of this interference, naming the color in which the word is printed takes longer. Interference is asymmetrical - the color in which a word appears does not lengthen response time to reading the words themselves. -Lab Selective Attention: In this experiment you were first confronted with the task of remembering words without knowing what kind of words would be presented. In the second experiment, you were given a cue as to what kind of words to expect. | | Based on previous research on the capacity of working of memory, we would expect you to remember 5 to 9 words from the first experiment. If you are like most people, you will have...
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...PGA Player Introduction: Chuck contacted a sport psychologist at the end of May, approximately halfway through the year. At that time he was about 90-100 on the money list and had made about $65,000. Chuck indicated that he had an inability to concentrate on the course. He was very indecisive about club selection. He was also very intropunitive (self blaming), demanding, and negative self-talking. Intervention: The sport psychologist traveled to Chuck's home and spent 2 days with him. He utilized a paper and pencil "Golfing Profile" form to gather some intake information. This inventory proved very useful. They talked for 2-3 hours, went to the course and hit balls, played 9 holes and met again the next day with his wife, also a very good golfer. It was determined that Chuck's concentration problem was due to high internal overload; that is, he was thinking too much on the course. Chuck was able to hit shot after shot where he wanted the ball to go. Yet, he was always overly critical of the result. Nideffer's Model of Attentional Control was utilized to explain to him where his attentional difficulties occurred. SCORE was utilized as a way to go over his pre-shot routine, S (Scan),C(Contemplate), 0 (Overall feeling), R (Ritual), and E (Execute). It was decided that Chuck would cut down the amount of time in the scan and contemplate areas and to concentrate on the feel, ritual and execute stages. The plan was to eliminate or cut down the time for second...
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...strategy is simply associating parts of the material needed to be remembered with places, for example, different rooms in your house. So trying to remember the components of the working memory model you could mentally imagine a ‘central executive’ sitting in your bathroom. 3a. There will be a difference between the amount of numbers adults (aged between 30 – 40) can immediately recall compared to children (aged between 5 – 15) 3b. The experimenter used independent group design because the independent variable being tested was age and therefore required two age groups. 3c Age group Mode Children 6 Adults 7 3d. The frequency distribution shows that on average adults recalled more correct digits than children. 3e. These results do support other research because brain capacity is said to increase with age and we develop strategies such as chunking (Miller) also increasing with age. 4. An experiment by Peterson and Peterson was conducted on 24 students into the duration of short-term memory. Participants were given nonsense trigrams followed by a 3 digit number. In the retention interval they were asked to count backwards in 3’s from this 3 digit number to prevent rehearsal of the trigram. Each time the retention interval increased, for example, 3,6,9,12,15,18 seconds and were asked to recall the nonsense trigram immediately...
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...AO1: Shriffin et al proposed the Multi-Store Memory model (MSM), a structural model composed of 3 separate stores: Sensory memory (SM), Short-term memory (STM) and Long-term memory (LTM). The sensory memory receives constant information from environmental stimuli through the senses. It stays in the SM for short periods because it receives little attention. However, if attention is focused on these stimuli, it becomes processed into the STM. Rehearsal maintains information in the STM but can be forgotten quickly due to limited duration (decay) or displacement of new information due to limited capacity. Through maintenance rehearsal, information is transferred to the LTM. The LTM has unlimited capacity and duration depending on the processing of information. While the LTM encoding is mainly semantic the STM encoding is auditory with a capacity of 7 +/- 2 items and duration of up to 18 seconds. AO2: The model has been criticised for lacking ecological validity. This is because the evidence for the model primarily comes from meaningless verbal data rather than memory concerned with real life. The MSM can be argued to be reductionist for oversimplifying memory structure. The model assumes that short-term and long-term stores are unitary: contrary evidence from the working memory model has demonstrated that short-term memory is divided into multiple components. Peterson and Peterson’s (1959) study supports the role of rehearsal. 24 participants had to recall...
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...assigned textbook material from Chapters 7 (p257-260), 8, 9, 10 (p 366-367), 11, and 12. There may be some overlap between the concepts from the first parts of this course, as many of the ideas we discussed during infancy are also important during early and middle childhood, but the exam will focus on early and middle childhood. • What are some of the main advances in children’s thinking during early childhood? o Growth of representational skills- one objects stands/represents another ex. Banana as phone • Be able to describe the findings of the various conservation tasks. What do they tell us? o Conservation of number: young children (4-5 yo) don’t understand # of chips is still same b/c now occupy more space; older children understand concept of conservation o Conservation of length; area; mass; displaced liquid: all results are same as number task 4-5 yo unable to understand conservation concept; they think more now when still is same • What does the Judy Deloache model-room study examine? How do children do on this task at different time points in development? o 2 ½ - 3 ½ y.o watched as she hid toy in model room; Results: 2 y.o didn’t know tasks were related and searched larger room at random; 3 y.o searched in same location as model room o Study examines child’s representational skills: ability to recognize that one object stands for another ie. Small model room represented larger room • What are some of the tasks that examine egocentrism and theory of...
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...20-30 seconds, but this can be shortened to a mere couple of seconds if rehearsing this information is prevented. Lots of research has taken place in order to determine the capacity of short term memory. The most famous experiment, the influential paper titled “The magical Number Seven, plus or minus Two,” psychologist George Miller suggested that people can store between five and nine pieces of information on our short term memory. However, recent research suggests that we can’t store this much information, in fact we can only store 4 pieces of information. The duration of long term memory is a complete contrast to that of short term memory. While it is still possible to forget pieces of information, long-term memories can last for a matter of days to as long as decades and maybe even a lifetime. 3. This is the investigation I will carry out to research how many figures people can remember. * In my experiment, I will use number sequences for people to remember. Each sequence will be composed of numbers 0-9 and they will all be different. * I will start with a sequence that is 2 digits long and then 3, 4 and so on until the participant can no longer remember the sequence. * I am going to use a number generator to make sure my sequences are random so the participants are completely new to them. I will then write down...
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...Centre Number | | | | | | Candidate Number | | | | | Surname | | Other Names | | Candidate Signature | | For Examiner’s Use | Examiner’s Initials | Question | Mark | 1 | | 2 | | 3 | | 4 | | 5 | | 6 | | 7 | | TOTAL | | For Examiner’s Use | Examiner’s Initials | Question | Mark | 1 | | 2 | | 3 | | 4 | | 5 | | 6 | | 7 | | TOTAL | | General Certificate of Education Advanced Subsidiary Examination January 2013 Psychology (Specification A) PSYA1 Unit 1 Cognitive Psychology, Developmental Psychology and Research Methods Thursday 10 January 2013 1.30 pm to 3.00 pm You will need no other materials. Time allowed 1 hour 30 minutes Instructions Use black ink or black ball-point pen. Fill in the boxes at the top of this page. Answer all questions. You must answer the questions in the spaces provided. Do not write outside the box around each page or on blank pages. Do all rough work in this book. Cross through any work you do not want to be marked. Information The marks for questions are shown in brackets. The maximum mark for this paper is 72. Question 7 should be answered in continuous prose. You may use the space provided to plan your answer. In Question 7, you will be assessed on your ability to: – use good English – organise information clearly – use specialist vocabulary where appropriate. (JAn13psyA101) G/T87042 6/6/6/ ...
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...The effects of pictures and words on short-term memory recall. Abstract The aim of this research is to observe if there is a difference between the numbers of pictures and words recalled by the participants. Considering the findings of the results the participants are able to remember more objects accompanied with the pictures rather than if the objects accompanied as words. This research used 20 participants aged 16 years and above and the participants were divided into group A and group B. A list of 30 objects consists of fifteen words and fifteen pictures were given to the participants to review for two minutes and another two minutes were given to write down as many as they could remember. The mean, median and model numbers recalled pointed that the subjects were extremely good at remembering the pictures if objects accompanied with the pictures compare to if objects accompanied as words. The result used in analysing the difference between two sets of data has proved that there is a difference between subjects’ ability to remember more pictures compare to the amount words. For this reason, the hypothesis was accepted which can be concluded that there is a difference between pictures and numbers of words recalled by the participants. Introduction The major study of memory within psychology is known as cognitive psychology. Generally, the cognitive approach believes that information received from the senses (touch, taste, smell, sight) is developed by the brain...
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