...eukaryotic cell and is located in the cytoplasm. The mitochondrion requires transcription of several genes associated with the organelle along with translocation, targeting and assembly of proteins. (Hood and Joseph 2004) Mitochondria’s main function is to convert energy into forms that can be used by the cell. Along with generating fuel for the cell’s activities, the mitochondrion functions in a range of other processes including, cell signaling, cell division, cell growth, and cell death. Structure The mitochondrion can have different overall structures depending on the cell type. Most mitochondria appear as rod-like shaped organelles although sometimes they can appear like a branched interconnected tubular network. Mitochondria are very dynamic organelles that are consistently changing their shape. The mitochondrion occupies between 15 and 20 percent of the mammalian liver cell and contains thousands of different proteins. (Alberts et al 2008) Its structure contains two membranes, an outer and an inner, and also two internal compartments. The outer membrane encloses the mitochondria...
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...things by their scientific name. Well, it’s the same thing with cell parts. There’s a vocabulary that goes with the cell, and you’re just going to have to tough it out and learn it. But you know what? It makes sense. Learn to dissect those words. Now, the plasma membrane in an animal cell, or in a plant cell, separates the cell from its exterior, but the membranes in the cell also separate the parts of the membrane in closed organelles from the environment of the cell. Well, when we talk about some of the functions of membrane, we’re going to refer to the cytosol and the cytoplasm, and let’s just get those words out of the way. The cytoplasm is what we refer to as all of the material inside of the cell between the plasma membrane and the nucleus. So, for example, you will find many organelles in the cytoplasm, and the cytoplasm has a liquid in it called the cytosol – “cyto” solution. “Cyto” means cell. So we have the cytoplasm, kind of plasma; cytosol is the solution in the cytoplasm. Cell membranes, plasma membranes, and membranes in general can have other functions too. Now, here’s an interesting one. These are what are called microvilli – and we’re going to talk a lot about those later on – but you can see that you can actually have cytoplasmic extensions of the cell membrane. So what you have here is the plasma membrane extending itself...
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...BIO 112 – Spring 2016 Chapter 27 study guide Key Terms Speciation | Phylogeny/phylogenetic tree | Species | Subspecies | Genetic isolation | Allopatry | Genetic divergence | Allopatric speciation | Biological species concept | Dispersal | Reproductive isolation | Vicariance | Prezygotic isolation | Biogeography | Postzygotic isolation | Colonization | Temporal isolation | Sympatry | Habitat isolation | Sympatric speciation | Behavioral isolation | Disruptive selection | Gametic barrier | Niche | Mechanical isolation | Polyploidy | Hybrid viability | Polyploid speciation | Hybrid sterility | Autopolyploid | Morphospecies concept | Allopolyploid | Morphology | Whole genome duplication | Polymorphic species | Secondary contact | Cryptic species | Fusion | Phylogenetic species concept | Reinforcement | Monophyletic group | Hybridization | Clade | Hybrid zone | Lineage | Ring species | Synapomorphy | Hybrid speciation | Common ancestor/common ancestry | | Outline * Speciation occurs when a single ancestral group splits into two or more species * Results from genetic isolation and genetic divergence * How are species defined and identified * Biological species concept * Reproductive isolation * Prezygotic * Temporal * Habitat * Behavioral * Gametic barrier * Mechanical * Postzygotic * Hybrid viability ...
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...Biology, 8e (Campbell) Chapter 6 A Tour of the Cell Multiple-Choice Questions 1) When biologists wish to study the internal ultrastructure of cells, they most likely would use A) a light microscope. B) a scanning electron microscope. C) a transmission electronic microscope. D) A and B E) B and C Answer: C Topic: Concept 6.1 Skill: Knowledge/Comprehension 2) The advantage of light microscopy over electron microscopy is that A) light microscopy provides for higher magnification than electron microscopy. B) light microscopy provides for higher resolving power than electron microscopy. C) light microscopy allows one to view dynamic processes in living cells. D) A and B E) B and C Answer: C Topic: Concept 6.1 Skill: Knowledge/Comprehension 3) A primary objective of cell fractionation is to A) view the structure of cell membranes. B) identify the enzymes outside the organelles. C) determine the size of various organelles. D) separate the major organelles so that their particular functions can be determined. E) crack the cell wall so the cytoplasmic contents can be released. Answer: D Topic: Concept 6.1 Skill: Knowledge/Comprehension 4) In the fractionation of homogenized cells using centrifugation, the primary factor that determines whether a specific cellular component ends up in the supernatant or the pellet is A) the relative solubility of the component. B) the size and weight of the component...
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...CB28CH03-Tu ARI 3 May 2012 18:6 E R V I E W A D V A N C E Review in Advance first posted online on May 11, 2012. (Changes may still occur before final publication online and in print.) S I N Driving the Cell Cycle Through Metabolism Ling Cai and Benjamin P. Tu Annu. Rev. Cell Dev. Biol. 2012.28. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org by Ecole Polytechnique Federal Lausanne on 06/20/12. For personal use only. Department of Biochemistry, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas 75390-9038; email: benjamin.tu@utsouthwestern.edu Annu. Rev. Cell Dev. Biol. 2012. 28:3.1–3.29 The Annual Review of Cell and Developmental Biology is online at cellbio.annualreviews.org This article’s doi: 10.1146/annurev-cellbio-092910-154010 Copyright c 2012 by Annual Reviews. All rights reserved 1081-0706/12/1110-0001$20.00 Keywords cell growth, cell proliferation, metabolic cycle, growth control, nutrients, yeast Abstract For unicellular organisms, the decision to enter the cell cycle can be viewed most fundamentally as a metabolic problem. A cell must assess its nutritional and metabolic status to ensure it can synthesize sufficient biomass to produce a new daughter cell. The cell must then direct the appropriate metabolic outputs to ensure completion of the division process. Herein, we discuss the changes in metabolism that accompany entry to, and exit from, the cell cycle for the unicellular eukaryote Saccharomyces cerevisiae...
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...giving the program a way to distinguish which form is being 2) A named function can also vary depending on the parameters it is given. For example, if given a variable that is an integer, the function chosen would be to seek a match against a list of employee numbers; if the variable were a string, it would seek a match against a list of names. In either case, both functions would be known in the program by the same name. This type of polymorphism is sometimes known as overloading. 3) Polymorphism can mean, as in the ML language, a data type of "any," such that when specified for a list, a list containing any data types can be processed by a function. (For example, if a function simply determines the length of a list, it doesn't matter what data types are in the list.) 4) In PHP, polymorphism means that if B is a descendant of A and a function can accept A as a parameter, it can also accept B. We describe a new basis for the construction of a genetic linkage map of the human genome. The basic principle of the mapping scheme is to develop, by recombinant...
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...from simply being a list of parts. In addition to the structure and function of individual organelles, questions probe student understanding of the cell as a dynamic, interconnected system: the flow of membrane and proteins in the endomembrane system to the plasma membrane; the flow of information from the nucleus to the cytoplasm; and the connection between the cytoskeleton, the plasma membrane, and the extracellular matrix. An evolutionary perspective goes beyond structural distinctions between prokaryotes and eukaryotes to examine theories concerning the evolutionary origins of eukaryotes and key eukaryotic cell structures. Multiple-Choice Questions 1) When biologists wish to study the internal ultrastructure of cells, they can achieve the finest resolution by using A) a phase-contrast light microscope. B) a scanning electron microscope. C) a transmission electronic microscope. D) a confocal fluorescence microscope. E) a super-resolution fluorescence microscope. Answer: C Topic: Concept 6.1 Skill: Knowledge/Comprehension 2) The advantage of light microscopy over electron microscopy is that A) light microscopy provides for higher magnification than electron microscopy. B) light microscopy provides for higher resolving power than electron microscopy. C) light microscopy allows one to view dynamic processes in living cells. D) light microscopy provides higher contrast than electron microscopy. E) specimen preparation for light microcopy does not produce...
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...Contents Chapter 1 Chapter 2 Chapter 3 Chapter 4 Chapter 5 Chapter 6 Chapter 7 Chapter 8 Chapter 9 Chapter 10 Chapter 11 Chapter 12 Chapter 13 Chapter 14 Chapter 15 Chapter 16 Chapter 17 Chapter 18 Chapter 19 Chapter 20 Chapter 21 Chapter 22 Chapter 23 Introduction to Biochemistry Water Amino Acids and the Primary Structures of Proteins Proteins: Three-Dimensional Structure and Function Properties of Enzymes Mechanisms of Enzymes Coenzymes and Vitamins Carbohydrates Lipids and Membranes Introduction to Metabolism Glycolysis Gluconeogenesis, The Pentose Phosphate Pathway, and Glycogen Metabolism The Citric Acid Cycle Electron Transport and Oxidative Phosphorylation Photosynthesis Lipid Metabolism Amino Acid Metabolism Nucleotide Metabolism Nucleic Acids DNA Replication, Repair, and Recombination Transcription and RNA Processing Protein Synthesis Recombinant DNA Technology 1 10 27 46 65 85 104 119 137 153 169 185 199 213 227 241 256 269 284 300 315 330 348 Chapter 1 Introduction to Biochemistry 1) Which elements account for more than 97% of the weight of most organisms? A) C, H, N, Mg, O, S B) C, H, N, O, P, S C) C, H, N D) Fe, C, H, O, P E) Ca2+ , K+ , Na+ , Mg 2+ , ClAnswer: B Page Ref: Section 2 2) Proteins in biological membranes may be A) porous. B) attached to the membrane surface. C) span the membrane. D) All of the above E) B and C only Answer: D Page Ref: Section 3 3) Which statement...
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...Starting with the Sumerians, the first great culture 6,000 years ago, through the Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans, everyone accepted that some form of heavenly beings had created all of life and, as a crowning achievement, topped it off with humans. Now, consider that for a moment. Today the CEO of a medium-sized corporation can verbally issue an instruction to be carried out company-wide and have no hope it will reach the lower echelons intact. So the fact that most historical cultures, from first to most recent (our own), believed essentially the same creation story is astonishing in its consistency. Naturally, such long-term consistency made it extremely difficult to challenge when the accumulation of scientific evidence could no longer be ignored. Charles Darwin is usually credited with issuing the first call for a rational examination of divine creation as the belief system regarding the origins of life and humanity. However, in his 1859 classic, The Origin Of Species, he skirted both issues in an attempt to placate his era’s dominant power structure—organized religion. Though he used the word "origin" in the title, he was careful to discuss only how species developed from each other, not how life originated. And he simply avoided discussing humanity’s origins. Ultimately, pressure from both supporters and critics forced him to tackle that thorny issue in 1871’s The Descent Of Man; but Charles Darwin was never comfortable at the cutting edge of the social debate he helped...
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...1. Introduction Global environmental problems have become serious issues in previous decades, and global warming is the oneof them that people are aware of. It is widely accepted that global warming is caused by fossil fuels and therefore fossil fuels should be replaced with clean energy sources to reduce carbon dioxide and greenhouse gas emissions. In addition, energy demand today is much higher than ever before and it will increase by fifty percentages in the next 20 years according to Energy Information Agency (IEA) report. The main alternative energy sources to fossil fuel are biofuels which have received much attention worldwide and they have already generated 45% of all energy from natural fuels in Brazil.(Sims & Taylor, 2008) The most widely used biofuel is the first generation biofuel which is make from plants like sugarcane, oilseed. By using these kinds plants, ethanol and oil can be produced.(Ahmad, Mat Yasin, Derek, & Lim, 2011) In this essay, innovations in biofuels will be divided into 3 sectors with examples illustrated. 2. The Innovation Dimension 3.1 Innovation Type Innovation can be divided into four types: production innovation, process innovation, position innovation and paradigm innovation. (Tidd, Bessant, & Pavitt, 2005)In the biofuel sector, product innovation and process innovation are widely used. Product innovations are changes in the products which an organization offers. Process innovations are changes in the ways in which...
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... Dept : Animal Sciences MSc 2nd Semester Index Page # 1. Introduction 3 2. Structure and functions of liver 3,4 3. Liver Regeneration 5 4. Two layers of defense against liver injury 5 5. Dynamics of liver regeneration 6 6. Stimuli of hepatic regeneration 7 7. Regeneration by hepatocytes (1st line of defense) 8 8. Signaling networks activated after partial hepatectomy 9 9. Matrix metalloproteinase family 10 10. Recent additions 12 11. Regeneration by liver progenitor cells (2nd line of defense)...
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...Topic: Opening Essay Skill: Factual Recall 2) Which of the following statements regarding photosynthesis and carbon dioxide is false? A) Plants require carbon dioxide, water, and sunlight to make glucose. B) Burning fossil fuels release carbon dioxide that was removed from the atmosphere millions of years ago. C) Because of their short growth period and self-regeneration, willows are more viable as a source of potential power than the trees in most natural forests. D) Most of the food humans eat can be traced back to photosynthetic plants. E) Burning wood contributes more to acid rain than burning fossil fuels. Answer: E Topic: Opening Essay Skill: Factual Recall 3) What is the name given to organisms that can make their own food and the food for the biosphere? A) chemotrophs B) heterotrophs C) manufacturers D) synthesizers E) producers Answer: E Topic: 7.1 Skill: Factual Recall 4) Photoautotrophs A) make sugar by using organic raw materials. B) produce organic molecules from inorganic molecules. C) eat other organisms that use light energy to make food molecules. D) include only the green plants. E) are only found on land. Answer: B Topic: 7.1 Skill: Factual Recall 5) Which of the...
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...cell‐derived equivalents would restore normal function. On the other hand, the use of hES cells is highly controversial because they are derived from human pre‐implantation embryos. To date, most embryos used for the establishment of hES cell lines have been spare embryos from IVF, but the creation of embryos specifically for deriving hES cells is also under discussion. The most controversial variant of this is the transfer of a somatic cell‐nucleus from a patient to an enucleated oocyte (unfertilized egg) in order to produce hES cells genetically identical to that patient for ‘autologous’ transplantation (so‐called ‘therapeutic’ cloning); this may prevent tissue rejection. The question ‘Can these cells be isolated and used and, if so, under what conditions and restrictions’ is presently high on the political and ethical agenda, with policies and legislation being formulated in many countries to regulate their derivation. The UK has been the first to pass a law governing the use of human embryos for stem cell research. The European Science Foundation has established a committee to make an inventory of the positions taken by governments of countries within Europe on this issue (European Science Foundation, 2001). In order to discuss the moral aspects of the isolation and use of hES cells, which is the aim of the present article, it is first...
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...Traumatic head Injury is the most common cause of death and disability in the UK (National Institute of Clinical Excellence (NICE), 2014) and is the world’s leading cause of morbidity and mortality of those under the age of 45 (Wilson, 2011). A head injury has an impact in epidemiological and economic terms as well as loss in quality of life (Mar et al. 2011). Approximately 700,000 people per year in England and Wales attend an emergency department for head injury, with almost half being the result of falls (NICE, 2007 & Clinical Knowledge Summary, 2009). The vast majority of patients (90%) will have minor head injuries (Vos et al. 2012) and be discharged, however many patients will need to be admitted for definitive care and treatment. The most common cause of head injury is from falls, assaults and road traffic accidents (Department of Health, 2001 & NICE, 2007) with 70-88% of those head injuries occurring in the male population (Dolan & Holt, 2013). This essay aims to explore the physiological and psychosocial impact of sustaining a head injury. This will include normal physiology of the brain, along with the altered physiology and signs and symptoms as a result of the injury. Advanced interpersonal skills required by the nurse to care for the patient or their family will also be examined. To achieve this, the author will analyse and evaluate types of head injury and their classification, whilst also considering the social and psychological consequences...
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...Biology – Module 1 – A Local Ecosystem The distribution, diversity and numbers of plants and animals found in ecosystems are determined by biotic and abiotic factors. Compare the abiotic characteristics of aquatic and terrestrial environments. An aquatic environment is one that consists in water. The abiotic characteristics of an aquatic environment include: Buoyancy – This refers to the upward pressure (or thrust) that is applied on the organism by its medium. Buoyancy is determined by the density of the medium and determines the floating ability of an organism. Water provides sufficient buoyancy for many organisms, e.g., the jellyfish. If a jellyfish is taken out of water and placed on land it will disintegrate by spreading apart. Thus, the water provides enough buoyancy (pressure) in order to keep the shape of the jellyfish. Pressure – This is the downward force that is applied on an organism by its medium. In water, the pressure is dependent on the depth. Organisms that live at the bottom of the ocean experience the effects of extreme pressure and they must have specific adaptations that enable them to survive in such harsh environments. Temperature Variations – Usually in an aquatic environment there are minimal temperature variations to that compared with terrestrial environments. The temperature variations also depend on the size of the body of water; a large body of water will experience much less temperature variations than a smaller body...
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