...According to one way of speaking, that out of which as a constituent a thing comes to be is called a cause; for example, the bronze and the silver and their genera would be the causes respectively of a statue and a loving0cup According to another the form or model is a cuse; this is the account of what the being would be, and its genera – thus the cuase of an octave is the ratio of two to one, and more generally number – and the parts which come into the account. Again, there is the primary source of the change or the staying unchanged : for example, the man who has deliberated is a cuse, the father is a cause of the child, and in general that which makes something of that which is made, and which changes something of that which something is changed. And again, a thing may be a cause as the end. That is what something is for, as health might be what a walk is for. On account of what does he walk? We answer “To keep fit” and think that, in saying that, we have given the cause. Suppose one man thought that there are plans because there are leaves, roots, and stems; another that there are leaves, roots and stems because there are plants; a third that there are plants because there are seeds. Aristotle would say that there is no real dipute here, since each party is bringing forward a factor which is explanatory in a different way. The leaves, root, and stem account for the plant in the way in which bronze accounts for a statue, the plant accounts for the leaves, roots, and stem...
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...a.) Aristotle’s Theory of The Four Causes. Aristotle argues for and explains the four causes in his books ‘Physics’ and ‘Metaphysics’. He claims that there are only four causes (or explanations) needed to give evidence for change in the world. A complete explanation of the change of any object will use all four causes. These causes are; material, formal, efficient and final. Aristotle understood that each of the four causes was necessary to explain the change from potentiality to actuality. The material cause is the substance of which something is made out of; "That from which, as a constituent, an object comes into being." The human bodies ‘material causes’ are cells, skin and tissue. A computer’s ‘material cause’ would be its pixels and electronic components. Aristotle used the example of a bronze sculpture or a silver saucer. Bronze or silver, in this case, would be the material cause. The material cause is also a question scientists try and answer when they examine a specimen; they discover what it is made from. The material cause explains the general properties of an object. For example, the human body needs oxygen because its cells need oxygen, and a computer needs electricity because the electronic components need electricity to fuel them. Finally, the material cause can be split into two sectors: proximate matter and prime matter. Proximate matter is matter that has some working properties, such as cells and electronic components. Prime matter has no...
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...Aristotle's four causes serve as a road map to identify the reasons why a thing exists. Aristotle believed that four basic questions, which he referred to as the four causes, could explain a change in an object. The first cause, the formal cause, addresses the question, "What is the form of the thing?" For example, the form of a book is the book’s shape or defining characteristics. The second cause, the material cause, responds to the question, "What material makes up the thing?" For instance, the book is made of paper. Aristotle's third cause, the efficient cause, questions "What made the thing?" In the example of the book, a writer and some method of printing make the book. The fourth cause, the final cause, asks "What purpose does...
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...Critically compare Aristotle’s and Richard Dawkins’ views on body and soul identity. (35) The mind-body problem is an ongoing problem in the philosophy concerning the nature of the relationship between the mind, or consciousness, and the physical world. It questions how our mental thoughts are linked to our physical activities. In religion and philosophy, the soul is considered the immaterial aspect or essence of a human being, which is often considered to be synonymous with the mind or the self. In theology, the soul is further defined as that part of the individual which is thought to survive the death of the body. However, this view point isn’t taken by all. Viewpoints on the soul can be separated into monism, dualism and materialistic views. Aristotle is a monist believing that the body and soul are not linked, whereas Dawkins is a hard materialist believing that biology is the key. Aristotle defined the soul, or psyche, as the ‘first actuality’ of the body and argued against it having a separate existence from the physical body, unlike other philosophers such as Plato. Aristotle’s belief was that the difference between a live body and a corpse is the presence of the soul. When the soul dies, so does the body. In his book, De Anima he stated that “the soul does not exist without a body and yet is not itself a kind of body. For it is not a body, but something which belongs to a body.” In Aristotle’s view, full actualisation of a living thing is its soul. The soul...
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...[pic] [pic] Written By: Jermaine Brown Course: Intro to Philosophy Professor: V. Bartolini Date Written: May 1st, 2002 Aristotle Aristotle was born in 289 BC, as the son of Nichomachus. He was born at Stagira in Macedonia, which is located on the northwest coast of the Aegean Sea in Northern Greece. His farther was a friend and also the physician of the King of Macedonia. Since Aristotle's’ farther was so close to the King of Macedonia, Aristotle spent a great deal of his childhood time at the court. Being at the court would later show to be a great influence in his life. People that lived in ancient Greece through Aristotle’s time usually only carried one name, and they were also referred to by the place from which they were born at. Because of this, Aristotle was often commonly known as “Aristotle of Stagira”. When Aristotle was just about the age of ten, his farther died and Aristotle was taken under the care of a man who was named Proxenus. At the age of 17, Proxenus sent Aristotle to Athens, which at the time was the intellectual center of the world. Aristotle went there to complete his education. He enrolled at the most famous academy in Athens, which was directed by Plato. Aristotle soon became a prominent figure at this academy. While at this academy, Aristotle threw himself totally into the works of Plato’s Pursuit of the truth and goodness, even though Aristotle departed from the master’s teachings on many...
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...particular philosophical problem therefore requires a historical perspective. Thus, in order to better understand the contemporary approaches to the complex issue of causation, and the problems they raise, it is necessary to have a clear insight into the historical evolution of the concept of cause. Causality also referred to as causation is the relationship between an event (the cause) and a second event (the effect), where the second event is understood as a consequence of the first. In common usage, causality is also the relationship between a set of factors (causes) and a phenomenon (the effect). Anything that affects an effect is a factor of that effect. The philosophical treatment on the subject of causality extends over many years. In the Western philosophical tradition, discussion stretches back at least to Aristotle, and the topic remains a staple in contemporary philosophy. Though the concept of causation has emerged in Pre-Socratic philosophy, it was probably Plato who first stated the principle of causality: "everything that becomes or changes must do so owing to some cause; for nothing can come to be without a cause". But Plato emphasized the causal importance of formal causes. Nothing can be unless there be a changeless pattern of...
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...Aristotle's Views on Nature, Knowledge, and Being Aristotle was a realist and a scientific thinker. He dealt with attempting to explain the world around him, using evidence that could be derived from the senses. Unlike his predecessors, Aristotle organized his thought more collectively. He described the being, relating to both living things and inanimate objects, as the state of essential substance, one definite characteristic. According to Aristotle, that being is changed by any number of things, including growth, modification, destruction, quality, even negation. In addition to that beings in Aristotle's theory can be primary while still having secondary caracteristics to describe the “that”(i.e. What is that? A baby deer”. Unlike plato where a being is refered to as a “form” and “this”. Aristotle's view on knowledge, and the attainment of such wisdom, also differed from his predecessors. In addition to that his views on the soul were very different from those that came before him. Aristotle believed that the soul was a part of the body's make up that did not live on after death. However, he beleieved that the soul was the essence of the being that is created through the living experiences of that human. For example, a good person would be said to have a good soul, and after death the good soul does not move on to a paradise called heaven, but it rather dies along with the body. According to our notes and Aristotle's text on the soul (psuchē),” the soul is the form...
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...circumstances. Thomas Aquinas based Natural Law on Aristotle’s teaching about causality. In Aristotle Final cause and purpose are important when trying to give an explanation of a thing. Eg. the final cause of a knife is to cut. Aristotle thought this is what made a good knife. Something is good inasmuch as it fulfills its purpose. (The most important cause is the final cause which when achieved by an object it reaches perfection – because it has moved from potentiality to actuality eg. a potential A grade student becomes an actual one through application of hard work. ) The contrast with other senses of the word good can be brought out if we consider that a good knife can be used to perform a bad deed – ie. to stab a person. However, if it cut cleanly it would be good in the sense of doing what it was made for. This use of the word good is taken up in Aquinas and used in his theory. What is clear for a knife is not so clear for humans – what is our purpose? Ultimately, God Himself is the final purpose of human beings – our goals are not merely temporal, but eternal, because we have an immortal soul. However, we also have temporal purposes, which could be summarised as to live and flourish in certain ways discoverable by reason. Thomas Aquinas believed that Natural Law was part of a hierarchy of laws that are part of the cosmos created by God. God created everything via the Eternal Law. As God is the ultimate cause of all being, he has the highest qualities in respect...
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...fulfilling human function well and this can be provided by practicing virtuous acts. On the other hand, Epicurus supports the idea that presence of pleasure and lack of pain can conduct us to complete happiness. I shall argue that Epicurus and Aristotle have different ideas but they both aim towards a final good, which is happiness. As two different ethical theories, they both have weakness’ and strengths that this paper aims to show. Aristotle defines happiness as “something you seek for its own sake, whereas you seek all other goods ultimately for the sake of happiness” (Aristotle’s Ethics: The Theory of Happiness). This shows us that happiness is a final good that every individual aims to reach. Aristotle supports the idea that everybody must fulfill their function well enough to reach complete happiness and a fulfilled life is found in those who practice virtuous acts (Boyce). To understand exactly what Aristotle’s philosophy aims to show, we must first understand how he defines virtue. According to Aristotle, virtue is a moral state that makes a person perform his proper function well; for example, the function of the eye is to see well and the function of human is reason. Reason keeps our actions in moderation. It is always possible to go in excess or deficiency in regard of anger, pleasure etc. practicing everything in...
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...In the antiquity, two parties argue a lot on the questions like: What is the ultimate source of knowledge? Or: How do we gain knowledge? They are rationalism and empiricism. Rationalism states that we depend on our reason capacities to gain real knowledge, which is inborn, independent and could not be determined by human beings. The most famous rationalist, Plato, contributes to metaphysics and epistemology. He explains his theory by using the example prisoners in a cave. The conclusion is that cognition comes from the appearance of the world not the reality. According to Plato, there exist two worlds: the real world and a supernatural realm which contains the eternal and perfect Forms. Everything we get from the real world is a reflection of the supernatural hence the essence is invisible. Reason is the only way in which we get the essence of appearance. Based on Plato’s metaphysics, Parmenides and Heraclites assert diverse opinions. Parmenides assumes that being is real and change is the characteristic of being while Heraclites considers change is real while being is not. Plato also holds the view that human beings are born with knowledge, and the immortal soul belongs to the supernatural. That we use our reasoning capacities to recover from the knowledge known before is called learning-by-recollection. On the other hand, there exists empiricism, represented by Aristotle who states that the source of knowledge is not reason but sensory experience. He disagrees with Plato’s...
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...Benjamin Franklin once said. Reputation has a large impact on the citizens of Salem, Massachusetts in the play, The Crucible. John Proctor is most affected by the thought of maintaining an acceptable reputation for his name. Throughout The Crucible, by Arthur Miller, John Proctor made many mistakes, one such as committing adultery, which made his wife, Elizabeth Proctor, lose his trust. Although he made mistakes, the town still saw John as a respectable man who cared immensely for his family. In the end, John did admit his sin of adultery and was hanged. Through “Aristotle’s Poetics” it is proved that John Proctor is the tragic hero of The Crucible because his true character comes out and he becomes a good man in the end by admitting to his wrong-doings, committing adultery, in order to save his reputation and family. John Proctor ruins his reputation within the change of fortune, or catastrophe, appeal of “Aristotle’s Poetics”. A change of fortune is explained as “occurs when a character produces an effect opposite to that which he intended to produce…”(McManus). John Proctor did not want his reputation ruined or his relationship with his wife ruined, however the complete opposite happened to him creating a major problem. The change of fortune is when John is finally forced to admit to the court about his sin (Miller 119). John Proctor commits adultery with Abigail and is compelled to admit this sin to his wife and to the town. John first admits to committing adultery to his...
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...A Protagonist of the Scientific Revolution: Galileo Galilei was one of the protagonists of the scientific revolution, best known for his astronomical discoveries by means of a telescope (including sunspots, Jupiter’s satellites, and the phases of Venus), for his defense of heliocentrism, and for his study of the natural laws regarding falling bodies. Galileo, however, gave key contributions also to the development of the modern scientific methodology; for this reason, he holds a special place in the philosophy of science and epistemology. Life: Galileo was born in or nearby Pisa from Vincenzo Galilei and Giulia Ammannati. His father was a well known lutenist and music theorist, and the young Galileo was well versed in the art as well (Galileo’s youngest sibling, Michelangelo, became indeed an accomplished lutenist). During his youth, Galileo moved through different locations in Tuscany, among which the monastery of Vallombrosa, run by Camaldolese monks. The story goes that until 1581 Galileo had not studied mathematics. After considering priesthood and enrolling into a program for physician at the University of Pisa, Galileo suddenly realized his mathematical vocation upon attending a geometry lecture. Immediately, he started discovering ingenious facts and creating crafts such as thermoscope. As early as 1589, Galileo held a chair in mathematics at the University of Pisa, which position he kept until 1592, when he moved to Padua. There, he remained until 1610. ...
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...Q) Discuss the revolution in Cosmology from Copernicus to Newton. In your essay, address the steps resulting in the breakdown of long held beliefs from Aristotle’s days, and Ptolemaic theories. * Prior to Aristotle. There were several other models of the universe, with the Phytogrean universe the most popular. In this model there existed a central fire in the middle of the universe, from which all light descended. * In Aristotle’s model of the universe the world outside the Earth existed, finitely, with nothing ever moving. With the universe in the same position as it ever was. This model of the universe was widely accepted and considered to be a scientific fact for many generations to come. According to Aristotle the universe was filled with a substance called aether to compensate for its dynamic nature. * One of the most important reason for the wide acceptance of Aristotle’s model of the universe was that it correlated with religious views of the time. * Aristotle’s model was further adopted by Ptolemy, to create Ptolemaic view of the universe. This led to the birth of the Aristotle-Ptolemy universe. In this model the Earth was the centre of the universe with the universe revolving around it. * The view persisted for more than and allowed the astronomers to predict the movement of the galaxy and the stars around the Earth. Star charts were developed first in this era. By the sixteenth century this view was intertwined into all of the world’s cutltures. * In the sixteenth...
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...determining natural purposes was the path to the most fundamental principles governing the world. Thus, in biology, he sought to understand the purposes of various organs and characterized species in light of these purposes. Regarding ethics and politics, he tried to establish that man's purpose was to participate in the political community, since what separates him from the animals is reason and language (which allows man to debate). With this natural purpose established, he went on to argue that man is complete only as a member of a community and that the ultimate form of association was the city-state. Teleology also played a role in his famous theory of the Four Causes. He argued that natural science must not only take into account causes such as origin or form, but also the final aim. Thus health could be called one of the causes of exercise, even while the reverse was also true. For Aristotle, what is virtue and how do we acquire it? Virtue, for Aristotle, is the developed ability to recognize the right or good thing to do. In many situations, no rulebook can tell us exactly how to act. Thus a virtuous person must possess the appropriate disposition that can recognize–as if by instinct–the correct course of action. This skill is not, however, simply innate. Rather, we acquire virtue by the development of good habits, and in turn, habit is developed by the appropriate exercise of reason in past choices. In practice, virtue generally meant the appropriate medium between the two...
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...meant by final cause? Aristotle was Plato’s student and lived between 384-322 BC. The final cause was the most important aspect of Aristotle’s theory. It was the theory that all objects have an ultimate reason for their existence. Aristotle proves this through his four causes; the material, formal, efficient and final cause. The final cause is the most important as the material, efficient and formal causes would be pointless under logical without a final cause. When we do something, it is for a reason. Aristotle believed in the notions of cause and effect. His interest was to explain ‘why’ things exist as they do. However, he rejected the idea that things which exist in some way that imitate an ideal Form (he rejected Plato’s ideas). He identified four types of cause that make something what it is. This interest led Aristotle to suggest that there are four different types of cause or explanation of why any object exists. The Four causes provide answers for Aristotle. The Material cause, ‘what it is made from?’, this refers to the matter or substance something is made from. The second cause is the Formal cause, ‘what is its Form or essence?’, e.g. a chair is what it is because it is in a Form of a chair. For Aristotle the Form is in the chair and each chair has its own Form. The third cause is, ‘what produced it?’, the Efficient cause, this refers to the cause of an object or thing existing. In other words, the answer to why the things exist. The first three causes exist only as...
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