...a.) Aristotle’s Theory of The Four Causes. Aristotle argues for and explains the four causes in his books ‘Physics’ and ‘Metaphysics’. He claims that there are only four causes (or explanations) needed to give evidence for change in the world. A complete explanation of the change of any object will use all four causes. These causes are; material, formal, efficient and final. Aristotle understood that each of the four causes was necessary to explain the change from potentiality to actuality. The material cause is the substance of which something is made out of; "That from which, as a constituent, an object comes into being." The human bodies ‘material causes’ are cells, skin and tissue. A computer’s ‘material cause’ would be its pixels and electronic components. Aristotle used the example of a bronze sculpture or a silver saucer. Bronze or silver, in this case, would be the material cause. The material cause is also a question scientists try and answer when they examine a specimen; they discover what it is made from. The material cause explains the general properties of an object. For example, the human body needs oxygen because its cells need oxygen, and a computer needs electricity because the electronic components need electricity to fuel them. Finally, the material cause can be split into two sectors: proximate matter and prime matter. Proximate matter is matter that has some working properties, such as cells and electronic components. Prime matter has no...
Words: 1432 - Pages: 6
...force in a living being. For Aristotle the psyche controlled reproduction, movement and perception. In contrast Aristotle regarded reason (nous) as the highest form of rationality. He believed that the ‘unmoved mover’ of the universe was a cosmic nous. Aristotle thought that the soul is the Form of the body. The soul is simply the sum total of the operations of a human being. Aristotle believed that there exists a hierarchy of living things – plants only have a vegetative soul, animals are above plants because they have appetites, humans are above animals because it has the power of reason. Aristotle tries to explain his understanding of the distinction between the body and the soul using the analogy of an axe. If an axe were a living thing then its body would be made of wood and metal. However, its soul would be the thing which made it an axe i.e. its capacity to chop. If it lost its ability to chop it would cease to be an axe – it would simply be wood and metal. Another illustration he uses is the eye. If the eye were an animal, sight would have to be its soul. When the eye no longer sees then it is an eye in name only. Likewise, a dead animal is only an animal in name only – it has the same body but it has lost its soul. What is important for Aristotle is the end purpose of something – an axe chops, an eye sees, an animal is animated…etc. This is what is meant by ‘teleology’ from the Greek teleoV meaning end. For Aristotle, the body and soul are not two...
Words: 602 - Pages: 3
...Lecture 9/23 – Background to Descartes I. Introduction: Descartes’ Life and Works A. Descartes (1596-1650) 1. Born in La Haye, France in 1596. 2. 1606 – 1614 Descartes studies at the Jesuit University of La Fleche where his philosophical education would have focused on Aquinas and Aristotle – the dominant world view at the time. 3. 1616 – Received his law license. 4. 1637 – Discourse on Method 5. 1641 – Meditations on First Philosophy 6. 1644 – Principles of Philosophy 7. 1649 – Descartes moves to Sweden and tutors Queen Christina. 8. 1650 – Dies in Sweden in 1650. B. Descartes revolutionizes philosophy in two main ways. 1. In terms of epistemology, Descartes explores important issues via the first person point of view. He asks, “What can I from my own subjective point of view know about myself and the world around me.” This approach dominates philosophy after Descartes. 2. Descartes will also transform the way in which we think about substance. C. Descartes is a pivotal figure in the history of ideas since he writes at a time when the world is changing in important ways. The Meditations is a much discussed work. 1. Renaissance (1350-1550) 2. Reformation (Beginning in the First Half of the Sixteenth Century) ...
Words: 1427 - Pages: 6
...of the perfect society. To this fact he gives an ingenious riposte, such societies will be under the guardianship of the offspring of the current guardians. That means what the future society will be under the guardianship of a not skill but the benefits of inheritance. In such a society, dissatisfaction is possibly the way of the day. Plato maintained that for dissatisfaction an understanding of the nature of the human being is the answer. That is, people are naturally different and they have where they fit in the society. In such a situation, they will be able to rule the society. A perfect society, I believe, is one that is distinctive by leaders who have the interests of the society at hand. That is, a society under the reign of guardians who are in favor of the members of the society and their needs. A society that is simply having rulers who have inherited power is liable to doom. This is because, in most cases, such kinds of people not only lack the wisdom to rule, but they are also corrupted by the benefits of inheritance that they become nefarious with power. However, in a situation where someone who has inherited power is able to stand for the wishes of the people then can lead a perfect society. The wishes of the governed should be the guiding factor here. It defines what the society stands for and what it aims to achieve, anybody going against such things is in contravention to the core...
Words: 1223 - Pages: 5
...The Doctrine of the Mean was created by the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle. This Doctrine is often referred to as a useless mistake with regards as to what it stands for, however I believe that it stands as one of the main beginnings of virtue based philosophy. The Doctrine of the Mean is based off of the idea of virtue and that everyone has a ethical choice to make no matter what situation they are placed in. For example, virtue can be seen when one is faced by two very extreme situations; virtue would be described as how one would act in that situation. A very basic example would be the “train track” situation where you can save 10 people on one side of a train track from getting hit or you can save your best friend. Virtue is based...
Words: 974 - Pages: 4
...inspired the entire development of Western culture. It’s pretty obvious then, that we ought to know something of their philosopher’s ideas. The most famous are, of course, Socrates, Plato and Aristotle. Prior to these are the so-called Pre-Socratics. The Pre-Socratic philosophers include: the Ionians who attempted to formulate materialist explanations of reality, the Eleatics, who proposed various intellectual conundrums about the nature of being and thought and the Sophists, who taught rhetoric and were an important social force (as their contemporary intellectual descendants are today). Socrates, Plato and Aristotle represent almost a school of thought. Socrates taught Plato, though he did not write down his teachings. After he was executed, Plato did write down what Socrates had taught, in the forms of dialogues, as well as much more which Plato probably thought he might have taught had he lived. Aristotle studied in Plato’s school, the Academy, until after many years he left to form his own. One might characterize all of their philosophizing as the attempt to solve a number of problems left to them by their predecessors in a systematic way. Western philosophy is traditionally held to have begun with Thales. Thales is said to have taught that water is the source of all things. What this means is unclear. Perhaps he was saying that the essential element out of which things arise is water. He may have thought this because of the water, or sap or blood present in living things...
Words: 8366 - Pages: 34
...I. THE THEORY OF THE IDEAS AND PLATO’S ONTOLOGY I. 1. The ontological dualism The theory of the Ideas is the base of Plato’s philosophy: the Ideas are not only the real objects ontologically speaking, but they are the authentically objects of knowledge epistemologically speaking. From the point of view of ethics and politics, they are the foundation of the right behaviour, and anthropologically speaking they are the base of Plato’s dualism and they even allow him demonstrate the immortality of the soul. Plato defends a clear ontological dualism in which there are two types of realities or worlds: the sensible world and the intelligible world or, as he calls it, the world of the Ideas. The Sensible World is the world of individual realities, and so is multiple and constantly changing, is the world of generation and destruction; is the realm of the sensible, material, temporal and space things. On the contrary, the Intelligible World is the world of the universal, eternal and invisible realities called Ideas (or "Forms"), which are immutable and do not change because they are not material, temporal or space. Ideas can be understood and known; they are the authentic reality. The Ideas or Forms are not just concepts or psychic events of our minds; they do exist as objective and independent beings out of our consciences. They are also the origin of sensible things, but although they are the authentic beings, Plato, unlike Parmenides of Elea, do not completely...
Words: 11604 - Pages: 47
...including political, economic, and social institutions. These institutions can also have a lot of impact on how political violence unfolds. The institutions can either create or abolish the chances of political violence. Institutions and the norms that they produce can foster an environment that would be essential for political violence to occur. Another explanation that may explain political violence is on the basis of ideas and rationale behind the violence or the environment in which violence could potentially occur. Patrick O’Neil states that ideologies are important to political violence because they “set out a worldview, diagnose a set of problems, provide a resolution, and describe the means of getting there. Any of all of these elements can be bound up with justification of violence.” The different ideas that create political violence may be based on religion, politics, prejudices, etc. Having these ideological bases can also help to create a community of people who think, feel, and believe the same thing, which can organize the political violence that may be carried out. The third and final explanation about why political violence occurs is because of the individual perpetrating the violence. Every person who explicitly creates violence that is politically motivated has their own motives and explanations, even if they are part of a larger group that initiated the violence. Psychological disparities or personal experiences could be a reason as to why people commit...
Words: 1678 - Pages: 7
...AS Religious Studies [pic] PHILOSOPHY & ETHICS Revision Summary Notes Revision Notes Foundation for the Study of Religion Part One: Philosophy of Religion Plato and the Forms Influence of Socrates • Socrates said that virtue is knowledge – to know what is right is to do what is right. • All wrongdoing is the result of ignorance – nobody chooses to do wrong deliberately. • Therefore, to be moral you must have true knowledge. The problem of the One and the Many Plato was trying to find a solution to the problem that although there is underlying stability in the world (sun comes up every morning), it is constantly changing (you never step into the same river twice). 1. An old theory about this problem is that we gain all knowledge from our senses – empirically. 2. Plato disagreed with this. He said that because the world is constantly changing, our senses cannot be trusted. Plato illustrated his idea in the dialogue, ‘Meno’: Socrates sets a slave boy a mathematical problem. The slave boy knows the answer, yet he has not been taught maths. Plato suggests that the slave boy remembers the answer to the problem, which has been in his mind all along. So, according to Plato, we don't learn new things, we remember them. In other words, knowledge is innate. Plato’s Theory of the Forms Plato believed that the world was divided into: 1. Reality and; 2. Appearance |REALITY ...
Words: 17188 - Pages: 69
...Module 11 Questions 1. Explain the humorous but meaningful and important phrase of Mill: “It is better to be a human being dissatisfied than a pig satisfied; better to be Socrates dissatisfied than a fool satisfied”. * Mill responded by describing a different theory of happiness. Human beings have abilities more elevated than the animal appetites. You cannot measure pleasures on quantity alone, but must include quality. Since Mill has come down on the side of Socrates instead of the fool, he has separated mental pleasures, which he called “higher” pleasures, from physical pleasures, which he implies are “lower” pleasures. 2. Why does Gustafson think utilitarianism might be the ethical approach most suited for business? * Gustafson thinks utilitarianism might be the ethical approach most suited for business because it is “outcome-oriented.” It is a goal that brings about happiness and social benefit. Utilitarianism when tied to business has a method of “making decisions which are essentially expedient and concerned with making the most money possible.” 3. Now, look at the example given on pp. 80-81 - embellishing the expense report. After applying the 7 considerations criteria to help calculate how much pleasure and pain will result in the decision to cheat on the report, it is not until the final criterion that other people, the company, and society, are considered in the equation. Will cheating harm anyone else? It seems for Bentham that the act itself is unimportant...
Words: 1186 - Pages: 5
...have held, utilitarianism is just a philosophy of “eat, drink and be merry, for tomorrow we die”? 2. Explain the humorous but meaningful and important phrase of Mill: “It is better to be a human being dissatisfied than a pig satisfied; better to be Socrates dissatisfied than a fool satisfied”. Even when we as humans are dissatisfied, our knowledge of such higher pleasures makes humans lives better than those of animals. Even when we are feeling a little melancholy, our memories of happiness can keep us going, and the thought of once again being happy can keep us suspended. In difference, animal pleasures are simplistic. Their pleasures include things like eating and mating. While we enjoy these pleasures as well, this is the height of pleasure for animals. They will never experience anything better than a good meal and a hump. 3. Why does Gustafson think utilitarianism might be the ethical approach most suited for business? Utilitarianism may be the ethical approach most suited for business because it helps calculate happiness. In addition, this ethical approach helps keep businesses sane and supports higher aspirations. 4. Now, look at the example given on pp. 80-81 - embellishing the expense report. After applying the 7 considerations criteria to help calculate how much pleasure and pain will result in the decision to cheat on the report, it is not until the final criterion that other people, the company, and society, are considered in the equation. Will cheating harm...
Words: 1009 - Pages: 5
...with intellect and will aside from our passions. These faculties make it possible for a human to feel being loved and to love back in return. The faculty intellect is the one that perceives and comprehends love, where we can interpret it, while the faculty of the will is the one that is responsible for conveying and reciprocating love. Our acts as human beings such as loving are very much different from those of the animals’. This is because human acts require the use of both the intellect and the will. It requires knowing and willing a particular act, making it voluntary. Aristotle notes that “What is voluntary would seem to be that of which the moving principle is in the agent himself, he being aware of the circumstances of the action”(NE, trans. by Ross, 2001, pp. 967). But love is more than just a voluntary act. For love to be considered a virtue, it should also have to be a decision. Aristotle continues that “For both children and the lower...
Words: 5565 - Pages: 23
... Joseph L. Badaracco Jr. explains the challenges managers face when making decisions on a daily basis and provides a framework for how to tackle those challenges. Early on, Badaracco explains how decisions between right and right (as opposed to right and wrong) are often the most difficult. Decisions like this can be seen as ‘defining moments’ because, according to Badaracco, they reveal, test, and shape a manager’s personal values as well as those of their organization. They also cause managers to come away with ‘dirty hands’, the unfortunate side effect of choosing one ‘right’ option over the other. It is how Badaracco puts these decisions in perspective that sets this book apart from other ethical decision-making books. ‘Defining Moments’ goes on to introduce a few real world cases that exemplify right versus right dilemmas. These examples demonstrate certain challenges that manager’s face, as well as serve to impress upon the reader the idea that there is almost never a clear-cut solution. The first case is that of Steve Lewis, a black analyst asked to represent his company’s diversity at a special presentation. The issue lies in whether he should sacrifice his personal values to satisfy his company’s request. Lewis’ case reveals how conflicts of personal integrity and moral identity shape one’s ultimate decision. A lot of thought must be given to choices that involve a matter of personal values in terms of who he is, what he stands for, and what regrets he would be willing...
Words: 2449 - Pages: 10
...Theology Revision Plato Plato lived in Athens in the 5th and 4th Centuries BC He was the student of Socrates and teacher of Aristotle He was a dualist- believed in the body and the soul He believed the soul was more perfect than the body He believed that societies should be run by philosophers He believed the physical world is a pale imitation of the world of the forms The allegory of the cave The prisoners- normal people of society The prisoner who escapes- philosophers, people that thirst to know the real truth The people casting the shadows- the leaders of society- shaping the world without knowing the truth The shadows/statues- what people believe is reality, what they are told to believe, things people deem to be important The cave- a world without knowledge, the physical world/the body The fire- controlled, dim light- limited knowledge. An imitation of the form of the good The journey outside- a difficult journey, acquisition of knowledge The sun- illuminates the true world- form of the good The journey back into the cave- the desire to educate and inform others of the truth The world of the Forms Forms Plato uses the word ‘form’ to describe the true essence of material objects in the world This idea of the ‘form’ exists in a non physical (yet more real) realm that can only be understood by the mind. This is called the world of the forms Plato believed that the forms were interrelated and hierarchical The highest form The ultimate principle...
Words: 5746 - Pages: 23
...always returned to the sanity of its roots—after exhausting the alternatives. As I read its history, economic theory has nearly completed its last great detour away from sanity, and is rapidly running out of alternatives to a renewal of “natural-law economics.” If such a renewal occurs, it won’t be because economists have decided to sit down and learn from philosophers (or, God forbid, theologians)—nothing could be farther from their minds—but for the same reason as the last seismic shift in economics, which began in the 1870s: a growing number of economists are finding the current state of economic theory a professional embarrassment. Of course, I may be underestimating the average economist’s threshold of embarrassment. But let me explain the nature of that * John D. Mueller is Associate Scholar of the Ethics and Public Policy Center and president of LBMC LLC, a financial-markets forecasting firm. For most of the 1980s he was Economic Counsel to the House Republican Conference (caucus) under chairman Jack Kemp. The research on which this article is based was made possible by The Lehrman Institute and the James Madison Program at Princeton University. 2 embarrassment, why only a renewed “natural law economics” will relieve it, and why non-economists should care. A Brief History of Economics. The most emblematic moment for economic theory since the Second...
Words: 10147 - Pages: 41
