Art theory 1 & History of Art and Design 1 Introduction to African Art
Africa is a vast continent, with many cultures distinct from one another, so that various different styles can be identified. Sculpture   While paintings and engravings are most frequently found in savanna areas, sculpture is most prevalent in the forests of West Africa, in particular the Congo Basin. Tradition is one manner in which a culture may be preserved. This is visible in a great deal of traditional African art. The preservation of one’s specific culture is a strong motivating force behind the production of African sculptures that are described as “tribal”. Because the art is meant to communicate the identity of a specific society, to promote the strength and longevity, such sculptures do not change their style very frequently. Therefore, artists work within a certain canon. This canon is determined by tradition, providing the artist with guidelines for the creation. It would, for example determine the proportions of the figure, its posture, etc. Such traditional sculptures therefore have developed a certain language: the viewer knows that certain parts mean certain things – e.g. lines on the face (scarification marks or tattoos) and the stylized hairstyle that specific society, etc. This specific language has been created over the decades, and allows the artist to communicate coherently. This coherent communication is vital, as art is intended primarily to fulfill a social function. It becomes a symbol which asserts the tribes identity. Religious motives may also underlie some African sculpture, as with the cult of ancestor worship, where it is necessary to bind the soul deceased ancestors to representations of them, in the form of sculptures. This cult varies greatly from one region to another. Sculptures may also form an important part of initiation rites, where guardians, overseers, mediators or even successful initiates may wear masks. This practice varies greatly from one region to another. Secret societies also make use of sculpture, as masks have to be worn in the fulfillment of their official duties, or during important celebrations. Once again, the use varies greatly from one region to another.











1



Another important use for art is in promoting the status of the king – court art includes masks and sculptures of the ruler’s ancestors, as well as those works in the palace that are used for decorative purposes. In certain areas and periods, realism may have been desirable, but for the most part, abstraction and stylization is required to transform in image into a proper sculpture. Proportions may be deliberately changed, parts may be exaggerated or obliterated, facial features transformed into a stylized geometry, etc. The motivation behind this is not only aesthetic, but also social in nature – parts that are not seen as important are left out, etc. Sculptures are most frequently made of terracotta and copper alloys. Some of the oldest sculptures have been found particularly at Nok (in Nigeria). These terracotta sculptures may vary from 4 inches to four feet in height. Estimates of their production range from 900 BC to 200 AD at the latest. They are composed of a combination of basic forms. The bodies of the human figures are comprised of simplified tubes, covered with strings of beads. While the heads of these figures are normally only represented with basic forms such as cylinders, spheres and cones, with simple holes pierced in the terracotta to represent the lips, ears, eyes and nostrils, the hairstyles of these figures are often quite elaborate. Interestingly, sculptures of animals are normally far more naturalistic than those of humans. In the 5th century AD, the city of Ife becomes the religious and political capital of the Yoruba people of Nigeria. It is famed for its tradition of idealised naturalism (11-15th century), and use of bronze casting. After the 15th century, the nearby kingdom of Benin becomes more prominent. Bronze casting is mastered in the 14th century. Some of the oldest sculptures were produced for the royal burial ceremony, and were representations of the king (the oba). Benin art tends to be narrative, as is visible, for example in the bronze plaques that decorate the columns in the palace. These plaques represent scenes of court life and historical events. The more recent art of the Yoruba is linked to ancient Nok art, as well as the court art that was produced in Ife and Benin so much earlier. Yoruba art is often court art, or religious or ritualistic. The Yoruba master woodcarving, bronze casting, sculpting in wrought iron, ceramics, and glass beadwork. There is a great deal of variety in their work, as it is influenced by local styles. The Yoruba people formed large cities, even before the development of writing. The oba (ruler) of a state would live in a palace in a capital city, surrounded by various towns, each, in turn, governed by an oba. Though the oba was powerful, his power was in reality divided: the oba could be challenged by the secret society called ogboni. The elders of the ogboni secret society often interfered with the oba’s political decisions, and operated a criminal court of their own. Their main function was to maintain traditional values. Court art aimed at glorifying the
2



 







oba would include the production of columns and doors decorated with relief images – scenes of royal life, or historical events, as well as royal regalia (diadems, sheaths for swords). Insignia for the secret society was manufactured primarily from bronze. Masks and headdresses are made to cater for the needs of such secret societies and for religious cults. The ogboni society’s ceremonies center round harvesting, sowing, and many masks are produced to fulfill this function. The egungun cult serves to entreat the help of ancestors – for securing good crops, protection against disease, etc, and for this purpose, various masks and headdresses are necessary. The Yoruba have developed a pantheon of at least 400 gods, called orisha. While the gods seldom appear in their art, worshippers are frequently depicted – bearing the symbol of the appropriate god. Ritual objects used for divination are also produced. The cult of deceased twins is also important. An object which is often produced for this cult are the ere ibeji figures. Yoruba carving is characterised by naturalism, colourful decoration, rounded or spherical form. Sculptures or masks are often made with round heads, and high, bulging foreheads. The eyelids also seem to bulge out, and are wide open. The nose is flat and broad, and lips are straight and parallel to one another. Legs of figures are shortened, and the head will usually comprise a 1/5 or 1/3 of the height of the figure. Nevertheless, within these broad parameters, a great deal of stylistic variety exists.  The work of the Asante from Ghana is also more recent. They produce mostly court art, using a great deal of gilding. This part of the continent is rich in gold, and used to trade in gold dust – even developing brass weights for weighing the gold. These brass weights were in themselves works of art, representing fauna and flora or geometric shapes made with the lost wax process. Asante stools are another popular genre. These normally have an oblong base and oblong seat, connected with carved openwork legs with geometric designs that are highly symbolic. Every Asante person has at least one stool which belongs solely to him or her, and will be used by them throughout their lives. The stools have highly symbolic meaning, literally becoming the seat of the soul. It is seen as the dwelling place of the person’s soul after death, so that the stool of a dignitary is accordingly placed in a family shrine. Funerary sculpture in terracotta is a very important genre in Asante art, and can vary from life-size heads, to entire human figures, and could be placed on the graves of dignitaries. These sculptures were intended to be portraits of the deceased, but were nevertheless idealised. Western perspectives    Before the industrial period, very little contact is made with foreigners, so that a great African art develops largely without external influence. European explorers are seldom interested in African art, being involved, rather in the slavetrade, or in obtaining precious metals or diamonds. Most of Africa is colonised by Europe after the Berlin Conference in 1884-85.
3

 

The rest of the world is not really exposed to African art prior to the late 19th century. The West investigates African objects not as art, but from an anthropological point of view, rather seeing these as curios. African sculpture is examined mostly in terms of its use in religious rites, and is considered to be uninteresting in other respects. In the 20th century, African art serves to re-invigorate Western art, providing a major inspiration for Modernist art. Modernists imitate the anti-naturalism of African art. African art has often been represented as timeless. This belief was perpetuated by Modernist artists who sought the origin of art in Africa and praised its eternal, universal appeal. However, this has also in the past been regarded by the West, (which often values progress above all else), in a negative light. The West often does not appreciate that their unfamiliarity with Africa and its culture and beliefs has minimised appreciation of its art. It is necessary to understand the context of a work in order to fully appreciate it. The function or meaning of a work is often not grasped. For example: Masks may contain spiritual potency – sometimes this power, however, is limited merely to the period during the ceremony when it is worn. Collectors are often not aware of this – a great deal of the masks exhibited in museums may in fact be those that have been discarded by their makers, rejected as they may have been damaged and no longer serve their purpose. The masks are not produced to be primarily visually appealing; in fact, the particular culture using the mask may even view it as being visually unappealing; however, in those cases the beauty of the mask itself is not important, rather, the mask is valued in terms of its spiritual value. Furthermore, museums also tend to only collect the wooden mask itself, without the appropriate costume, so that they are displayed out of context. The masks should also normally be seen within the context of a dance. The identity of the individual African artist is often ignored - rather, it is believed that the name of the tribe suffices. However, African sculpture is often the result of two different influences or considerations: it is not merely a convention established by a particular tribe that is of importance, but also the particular vision of the carver himself. A personal style may, in other words, be evoked within the traditions of a society. Moreover, the style apparently used by a particular tribe, is often not limited to this particular tribe; tribes often influence one another, so that various styles may be employed by a single tribe. Values involved in the production of African art often differ a great deal from Western ideals. In general, African art does not fall into the category “art for art’s sake”. Art for art’s sake is the term used to describe art that is not produced for instructional purposes or any purpose, other being the product of a pure interest in aesthetics. With art for art’s sake, the content (references to external subject matter) is of lesser importance. African art, on the other hand,
4

 









may serve a religious or spiritual function, or may be produced to indicate the status of the owner or serve some kind of functional end.  Realism, so highly valued by the West, is often not desired in African art – the production of too close a resemblance to the actual subject may be viewed negatively. Abstraction is often necessary for something to be considered valuable. One example of an African aesthetic standard, is that of the Yoruba. In the Yoruba culture, the value of an object is determined by the following:



o o o o o o

A balance between likeness and abstraction Visibility: that all parts are clearly formed Luminosity: A smooth, shining surface, with a play of light and shade Straight posture and symmetry Composure: a calm expression Disproportion of the human figure ________________________________________________________________ In the 20th century, due to colonisation, traditional art traditions are disrupted, so that new forms of expression are developed. Since the 1950’s and 60’s, with the de-colonisation of various countries, postcolonial art is being produced. Postcolonialism is a philosophical, literary or artistic perspective which criticises the legacy of colonialism after independence. Postcolonialism is also associated with postmodernism. Generally, in this period, there is also a shift towards the production of urban art.

    

Primary sources consulted: Kasfir, S.L. 1999. Contemporary African Art. Willet, F. 1994. African Art: an Introduction.
5