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EKONOMIJA: Međunarodna ekonomija

Hekšer – Olinova teorija

1. UVOD

Prema klasičnim ekonomistima, komparativne prednosti su bile zasnovane na razlikama u produktivnosti rada (jedini faktor proizvodnje koji su oni eksplicitno uzimali u obzir) između zemalja, ali oni nisu dali objašnjenje ovakvih razlika u produktivnosti, ako izuzmemo moguće razlike u klimatskim uslovima. H – O teroija ide mnogo dalje od toga proširujući model trgovine ispitivanjem osnove za komparativne prednosti i efekte koje trgovina proizvodi na zarade faktora u različitim zemljama.

Eli Filip Heckscher(1879 – 1952) i Bertil Ohlin (1899 – 1979) bili su švedski političari i ekonomisti. Predavali su na Stockholm School of Economics. Ohlin je dobio Nobelovu nagradu za ekonomiju 1977.g. zajedno sa Jamesom Meadom za njihov doprinos teoriji međunarodne trgovine i međunarodnoga kretanja kapitala. Heckscher je 1919.g. a Ohlin 1933.g. je objavio radove u kojima je razrađen model vanjske trgovine, koji objašnjava uticaj raspoloživosti faktora proizvodnje na obrazac trgovine.

- Heckscher utvrdio da je razlika u relativnom bogatstvu faktora prizvodnje nephodan uslov za razlike u komprativnim troškovima i komparativnim prednostima. Drugi važan uslov su različite kombinacije faktora proizvodnje za različite proizvode. Odakle slijedi zaključak da su inicijalni uslovi za međunaodnu trgovinu razlike u relativnom bogatstvu. Zemlja će se specijalizirati u proizvodnji onih prozvoda za koju je potrebno korištenje proizvodnje kojima je ta zemlja bogata. - B.Ohlin razvio Hecksherove teze i ramnatrao teoriju međunarodne trgovine u okviru opšte teorije lokacije, regionalne specijalizacije i trgovine među regionima. Naglasio da svaki region ima prednosti u proizvodnji dobara za čiju proizvodnju je nužno utošiti kličine faktora kojima je taj region bogat (obzirom da bogatstvo faktora uslovljava niže cijene faktora). Razlike u troškovima proizilaze iz razlika u cijenama faktora što dovodi do medjunarodne trgovine. Razmatrao je i uticaj transportnih troškova, kvaliteta proizvoda, carina, damping cijena, na međunarodnu trgovinu

2. PRETPOSTAVKE MODELA

H – O teorija je zasnovana na slijedećim pretpostavkama:

1. Dvije zemlje, dva proizvoda, (x i y) te dva faktora proizvodnje, rad (L) i kapital (K) 2. Obje zemlje koriste jednaku tehnologiju u proizvodnji - obje zemlje imaju pristup istim tehnikama i taj pristup koriste. Znači, kao su cijene faktora iste u obje zemlje, proizvođači u obje zemlje koristiće tačno istu količinu rada i kapitala u proizvodnji za svaki proizvod. Pošto se cijene faktora po pravilu razlikuju, proizvođači u svakoj zemlji koristiće više relativno jeftinog faktora sa ciljem minimiziranja svojih troškova proizvodnje. 3. Proizvod X je radno intenzivan, a proizvod Y je kapitalno intenzivan proizvod u obje zemlje – U obje zemlje proizvodnja X zahtjeva relativno više rada nego proizvodnja Y. To znači da je koeficijent rad/kapital veći za proizvod X nego za proizvod Y u obje zemlje za iste relativne cijene faktora. 4. Oba se proizvoda proizvode uz konstantnu ekonomiju obima u obje zemlje - Znači da je rastuća količina rada i kapitala koji su upotrebljeni u proizvodnji bilo kog proizvoda dovela do porasta outputa tog proizvoda u istoj proporciji. 5. U obje zemlje postoji nepotpuna specijalizacija u proizvodnji. – Znači da čak i uz slobodnu trgovinu obje zemlje nastavljaju da proizvode oba proizvoda. Ovo implicira da nijedna od dvije zemlje nije „veoma mala“. 6. Ukusi su identični u obje zemlje – preferencije potražnje, koje svoj izraz imaju u obliku i položaju krivih indiferentnosti, identične su u obje zemlje. Prema tome, kada su relativne cijene proizvoda jednake u dvije zemlje, obje zemlje će trošiti X i Y u istoj proporciji. 7. U obje zemlje postoji savršena konkurencija na tržištima proizvoda i tržištima faktora – Proizvođači, potrošači i trgovci proizvoda X i proizvoda Y u obje zemlje su suviše mali da bi uticali na cijene ovih proizvoda. Isto važi i za korisnike i ponuđače rada i kapitala. U dugom roku, cijene proizvoda su jednake njihovim troškovima proizvodnje. 8. Postoji savršena mobilnost faktora unutar svake zemlje, ali nema faktorske mobilnosti između zemalja – Rad i kapital su slobodni u svom kretanju, tako da se mogu pomijerati brzo iz oblasti i industrija sa višim zaradama sve dok se zarade iste vrste rada i kapitala ne izjednače u ovim oblastima, upotrebama i industrijama jedne zemlje. 9. Ne postoje transportni troškovi, carine ili druge barijere slobodnom odvijanju međunarodne trgovine – Specijalizacija za proizvodnju proizvoda se odvija sve dok, u uslovima postojanja trgovine, ne izjednače relativne i apsolutne cijene proizvoda u obje zemlje. 10. Svi resursi su potpuno uposleni u obje zemlje – u obje zemlje nema neuposlenih resursa ili faktora proizvodnje 11. Međunarodna trgovina između dvije zemlje je uravnotežena – Kod svake zemlje ukupna vrijednost izvoza jednaka je ukupnoj vrijednosti uvoza.

3. HEKŠER – OLINOVA TEORIJA

H – O teorija se može izložiti u vidu dvije teoreme: takozvane H – O teoreme (koja se bavi i predviđa obrasce trgovine) i teorem o izjednjačavanju cijena faktora (koja se bavi dejstvom međunarodne trgovine na cijene faktora proizvodnje).

3.1. H –O teorema

H - O teroema glasi: Zemlja će izvoziti proizvod čija proizvodnja zahtjeva intenzivnu upotrebu relativno obilnog i jeftinog faktora proizvodnje u toj zemlji, a uvoziće proizvod čija proizvodnja zahtjeva intenzivnu upotrebu relativno oskudnog i skupog faktora proizvodnje u toj zemlji. Ukratko, zemlja relativno bogata radom izvozi relativno radno intenzivan proizvod, a uvozi relativno kapitalno intenzivan proizvod.

Od svih mogućih razloga za razlike u relativnim cijenama proizvoda i komparativnih prednosti zemalja, H –O teorija izdvaja razlike između zemalja u relativnoj obilnosti faktora, ili u faktorskoj raspoloživosti, kao osnovni uzrok ili determinantu komparativnih prednosti i međunarodne trgovine. To je razlog zbog koga se na H – O model često poziva kao na teoriju faktorskih proporcija ili teoriju faktorske raspoloživosti. Drugim riječima, svaka zemlja se specijalizuje za proizvodnju i izvoz proizvoda koji je intenzivan po faktoru koji je relativno obilan i jeftin, a uvozi proizvod koji je intenzivan po faktoru koji je relativno oskudan i skup.

Prema tome, H – O teorija prije objašnjava komparativne prednosti nego što pretpostavlja njihovo postojanje. Ona postulira da su razlike u relativnoj faktorskoj obilnosti i cijenama uzrok razlika u relativnim cijenama proizvoda između dvije zemlje prije otvaranja trgovine. Ova razlika u relativnim cijenama proizvoda i relativnim cijenama faktora zatim se prevodi u razlike apsolutnih cijena proizvoda i faktora između dvije zemlje. Upravo ova razlika u apsolutnim cijenama proizvoda u dvije zemlje je ono što predstavlja neposredan uzrok trgovine.

Okvir opšte ravnoteže u Hekšer–Olinovoj teoriji prikazuje način na koji sve ekonomske snage zajednički određuju cenu finalnih proizvoda. Polazeći iz donjeg desnog ugla dijagrama, vidimo da raspodjela vlasništva nad proizvodnim faktorima, dohodak i ukusi određuju tražnju za proizvodima. Zatim se izvodi tražnja za faktorima proizvodnje iz tražnje za finalnim proizvodima. Tražnja i ponuda faktora određuje cijenu faktora. Cijena faktora i tehnologija određuju cijenu finalnih proizvoda. Zatim razlike u relativnim cijenama proizvoda između zemalja određuju komparativne prednosti i obrazac trgovine.

Međutim, iz skupa svih ovih snaga koje zajednički djeluju, H–O teorema izdvaja razliku između zemalja u fizičkoj raspoloživosti, ili ponudi, faktora proizvodnje (uz jednake ukuse i iste tehnologije) da bi objasnila razlike u relativnim cijenama proizvoda i trgovinu između zemalja. Olin je izričito pretpostavio jednake ukuse (i distribuciju dohotka) u različitim zemljama. To je dovelo do sličnosti tražnji za finalnim proizvodima i faktorima proizvodnje u različitim zemljama.

Primetimo da H–O model ne zahtjeva da ukusi, raspodjela dohotka i tehnologija budu potpuno isti u dve zemlje. Sve što se traži jeste da oni budu slični u najširem smislu.

Ilustracija Hekšer Olinove teorije

Kriva indiferentnosti I zajednička je za obje zemlje jer, po pretpostavci, imaju iste ukuse. Kriva indiferentnosti I je tangentna na granicu proizvodnje Zemlje 1 u tački A i tangentna je na granicu proizvodnje Zemlje 2 u tački A’. Ovo određuje ravnotežne relativne cijene proizvoda u stanju autarkije, PA za Zemlju 1 i PA’ za Zemlju 2 (videti lijevi dio slike). Pošto je PA < PA’, Zemlja 1 ima komparativnu prednost za proizvod X, a Zemlja 2 za proizvod Y. Uz postojanje trgovine (videti desni dio slike), Zemlja 1 proizvodi u tački B i razmijenjujući X za Y dostiže tačku E u potrošnji (vidjeti ugao trgovine BCE). Zemlja 2 proizvodi u tački B’ i razmijenjujući Y za X dostiže tačku E’ (koja se poklapa sa E). Obje zemlje imaju dobitke od trgovine jer troše na višoj krivi indiferentnosti II.

3.2. Izjednačavanje cijena faktora

Predstavlja posljedicu H–O teoreme jer iz nje direktno slijedi i važi samo tada ako važi H–O teorema. Pol Semjuelson (Paul Samuelson), dobitnik Nobelove nagrade za ekonomiju za 1970. godinu, dokazao je ovu teoremu (posljedicu) na rigorozan način. Iz tog razloga ona se ponekad naziva i Hekšer – Olin – Semjuelsonova teorema (ili skraćeno, H–O–S teorema). P.Samuelson dokazao da cijene faktora proizvodnje moraju biti iste i u slučaju slobodnog kretanjac roba u međunarodnoj trgovini ( umjesto slobodnog kretanja faktora prozvodnje)

Teorema o izjednačavanju cijena faktora (H–O–S) - možemo formulisati na slijedeći način: Međunarodna trgovina dovešće do izjednačavanja relativnih i apsolutnih prinosa na homogene faktore proizvodnje u različitim zemljama. Na taj način međunarodna trgovina predstavlja supstitut međunarodne mobilnosti faktora. Ovo znači da će međunarodna trgovina dovesti do toga da nadnice za homogeni rad (tj., rad iste obuke, kvalifikacija i produktivnosti) budu iste u svim zemljama koje trguju.

□ Na apscisi je označena relativna nadnica, na ordinati su označeni relativni odnosi cijena dobra X i Y □ Zemlja A je radno-intenzivnija, prije razmjene relativna nadnica i relativna cijena dobra X su na nižoj razini u tački A □ Zemlja B je kapitalno-intenzivnija, prije razmjene relativna nadnica i relativna cijena dobra Y su na višoj razini u tački B □ Međunarodna razmjene dovodi do izjednačavanja cijena proizvodnih faktora rada i kapitala izraženo kroz cijenu dobara X i Y te odnose relativnih nadnica u zemljama (tačka C)

4. EMPIRIJSKI TEST H – O TEORIJE

Prvi empirijski test Hekšer–Olinovog modela sproveo je Vasilij Leontijev 1951. godine koristeći podatke za SAD za 1947. godinu. Pošto su u tadašnjem svijetu SAD bile zemlja koja je izrazito K – obilna, Leontijev je očekivao da će dobiti rezultat da ona izvozi proizvode koji su K – intenzivni, a da uvozi proizvode koji su R – intenzivni. Za ovaj test Leontijev je koristio input – output tabele privrede SAD da bi izračunao količinu rada i kapitala unutar “reprezentativne korpe” izvoza u uvoznih supstituta SAD koja je vrijedila 1 milion dolara u 1947. godini. (Input–autput tabela pokazuje porijeklo i namjenu svakog proizvoda u privredi. Sam je Leontijev značajno doprineo razvoju ove nove tehnike analize za šta je dobio Nobelovu nagradu 1973. godine.)

Treba primetiti da je Leontijev ocjenjivao K/R za uvozne supstitute privrede SAD, a ne za njen uvoz. Uvozni supstituti su proizvodi, kao što su automobili, koji Sjedinjene Države proizvode kod kuće, ali ih i uvoze iz inostranstva (zbog nepotpune specijalizacije proizvodnje). Leontijev je bio prinuđen da koristi podatke SAD za uvozne supstitute zato što mu nisu bili na raspolaganju proizvodni podaci o inostranstvu.
Međutim, Leontijev je ispravno rezonovao da čak i ako su uvozni supstituti u SAD veće K – intenzivnosti od stvarnog uvoza (zato što je u SAD K bio relativno jeftiniji nego u inostranstvu), oni bi još uvijek morali biti manje K – intenzivni od izvoza SAD ukoliko je Hekšer–Olinovog model istinit. Naravno, upotreba podataka za uvozne supstitute SAD, umjesto inostranih podataka za stvarni uvoz SAD, takođe iz obračuna eliminiše proizvode, poput kafe i banana, koji se uopšte ne proizvode u Sjedinjenim Državama. Rezultati Leontijevljevog testa bili su zapanjujući. Uvozni supstituti SAD bili su za oko 30 procenata K – intenzivniji od izvoza SAD. Drugim riječima, izgleda da su Sjedinjene Države izvozile R – intenzivne proizvode, a uvozile K – intenzivne proizvode.

To je suprotno onome šta predviđa Hekšer–Olinov model i postalo je poznato kao paradoks Leontijeva.

Zahtjevi za kapitalom I radom za million izvoza I uvoznih supstituta privrede SAD

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