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Capital Structure Theory

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1) Teori Pendekatan Tradisional
Pendekatan Tradisional berpendapat akan adanya struktur modal yang optimal. Artinya Struktur Modal mempunyai pengaruh terhadap Nilai Perusahaan, dimana Struktur Modal dapat berubah-ubah agar bisa diperoleh nilai perusahaan yang optimal.

2) Teori Pendekatan Modigliani dan Miller
Teori MM tanpa pajak
Teori struktur modal modern yang pertama adalah teori Modigliani dan Miller (teori MM). Mereka berpendapat bahwa struktur modal tidak relevan atau tidak mempengaruhi nilai perusahaan. MM mengajukan beberapa asumsi untuk membangun teori mereka (Brigham dan Houston, 2001, p.31) yaitu:
Tidak terdapat agency cost.
Tidak ada pajak.
Investor dapat berhutang dengan tingkat suku bunga yang sama dengan perusahaan
Investor mempunyai informasi yang sama seperti manajemen mengenai prospek perusahaan di masa depan
Tidak ada biaya kebangkrutan
Earning Before Interest and Taxes (EBIT) tidak dipengaruhi oleh penggunaan dari hutang.
Para investor adalah price-takers.
Jika terjadi kebangkrutan maka aset dapat dijual pada harga pasar (market value).
Teori MM dengan pajak
Teori MM tanpa pajak dianggap tidak realistis dan kemudian MM memasukkan faktor pajak ke dalam teorinya. Pajak dibayarkan kepada pemerintah, yang berarti merupakan aliran kas keluar. Hutang bisa digunakan untuk menghemat pajak, karena bunga bisa dipakai sebagai pengurang pajak.
3) Teori Trade-Off dalam Struktur Modal
Menurut trade-off teory yang diungkapkan oleh Myers (2001), “Perusahaan akan berhutang sampai pada tingkat hutang tertentu, dimana penghematan pajak (tax shields) dari tambahan hutang sama dengan biaya kesulitan keuangan (financial distress)” (p.81). Biaya kesulitan keuangan (Financial distress) adalah biaya kebangkrutan (bankruptcy costs) atau reorganization, dan biaya keagenan (agency costs) yang meningkat akibat dari turunnya kredibilitas suatu perusahaan. Trade-off theory dalam menentukan struktur modal yang optimal memasukkan beberapa faktor antara lain pajak, biaya keagenan (agency costs) dan biaya kesulitan keuangan (financial distress) tetapi tetap mempertahankan asumsi efisiensi pasar dan symmetric information sebagai imbangan dan manfaat penggunaan hutang. Tingkat hutang yang optimal tercapai ketika penghematan pajak (tax shields) mencapai jumlah yang maksimal terhadap biaya kesulitan keuangan (costs of financial distress). Trade-off theory mempunyai implikasi bahwa manajer akan berpikir dalam kerangka trade-off antara penghematan pajak dan biaya kesulitan keuangan dalam penentuan struktur modal. Perusahaan-perusahaan dengan tingkat profitabilitas yang tinggi tentu akan berusaha mengurangi pajaknya dengan cara meningkatkan rasio hutangnya, sehingga tambahan hutang tersebut akan mengurangi pajak. Dalam kenyataannya jarang manajer keuangan yang berpikir demikian. Donaldson (1961) melakukan pengamatan terhadap perilaku struktur modal perusahaan di Amerika Serikat. Penelitian tersebut menunjukkan bahwa perusahaan-perusahaan dengan tingkat profitabilitas yang tinggi cenderung rasio hutangnya rendah. Hal ini berlawanan dengan pendapat trade-off theory. Trade-off theory tidak dapat menjelaskan korelasi negatif antara tingkat profitabilitas dan rasio hutang.
4) Teori Pecking Order
Menurut Myers (1984), pecking order theory menyatakan bahwa ”Perusahaan dengan tingkat profitabilitas yang tinggi justru tingkat hutangnya rendah, dikarenakan perusahaan yang profitabilitasnya tinggi memiliki sumber dana internal yang berlimpah.” Dalam pecking order theory ini tidak terdapat struktur modal yang optimal. Secara spesifik perusahaan mempunyai urut-urutan preferensi (hierarki) dalam penggunaan dana. Menurut pecking order theory dikutip oleh Smart, Megginson, dan Gitman (2004, p.458-459), terdapat skenario urutan (hierarki) dalam memilih sumber pendanaan, yaitu :
Perusahaan lebih memilih untuk menggunakan sumber dana dari dalam atau pendanaan internal daripada pendanaan eksternal. Dana internal tersebut diperoleh dari laba ditahan yang dihasilkan dari kegiatan operasional perusahaan.
Jika pendanaan eksternal diperlukan, maka perusahaan akan memilih pertama kali mulai dari sekuritas yang paling aman, yaitu hutang yang paling rendah risikonya, turun ke hutang yang lebih berisiko, sekuritas hybrid seperti obligasi konversi, saham preferen, dan yang terakhir saham biasa.
Terdapat kebijakan deviden yang konstan, yaitu perusahaan akan menetapkan jumlah pembayaran deviden yang konstan, tidak terpengaruh seberapa besarnya perusahaan tersebut untung atau rugi.
Untuk mengantisipasi kekurangan persediaan kas karena adanya kebijakan deviden yang konstan dan fluktuasi dari tingkat keuntungan, serta kesempatan investasi, maka perusahaan akan mengambil portofolio investasi yang lancar tersedia. Pecking order theory tidak mengindikasikan target struktur modal. Pecking order theory menjelaskan urut-urutan pendanaan. Manajer keuangan tidak memperhitungkan tingkat hutang yang optimal. Kebutuhan dana ditentukan oleh kebutuhan investasi. Pecking order theory ini dapat menjelaskan mengapa perusahaan yang mempunyai tingkat keuntungan yang tinggi justru mempunyai tingkat hutang yang kecil.
Dalam kenyataannya, terdapat perusahaan-perusahaan yang dalam menggunakan dana untuk kebutuhan investasinya tidak sesuai seperti skenario urutan (hierarki) yang disebutkan dalam pecking order theory. Penelitian yang dilakukan oleh Singh dan Hamid (1992) dan Singh (1995) menyatakan bahwa “Perusahaan-perusahaan di negara berkembang lebih memilih untuk menerbitkan ekuitas daripada berhutang dalam membiayai perusahaannya.” Hal ini berlawanan dengan pecking order theory yang menyatakan bahwa perusahaan akan memilih untuk menerbitkan hutang terlebih dahulu daripada menerbitkan saham pada saat membutuhkan pendanaan eksternal.
5) Teori Asimetri Informasi dan Signaling
Teori ini mengatakan bahwa dalam pihak pihak yang berkaitan dengan perusahaan tidak mempunyai informasi yang sama mengenai prospek dan resiko perusahaan. Pihak tertentu mempunyai informasi yang lebih dari pihak lainnya.
Teori ini terdiri dari Teori :
Myers dan Majluf
Menurut Teori ini ada asimetri informasi antara manger dengan pihak luar. Manager mempunyai informasi yang lebih lengkap mengenai kondisi perusahaan dibandingan pihak luar.
Signaling
Mengembangkan model dimana struktur modal (penggunaan hutang) merupakan signal yang disampaikan oleh manager ke pasar. Jika manager mempunyai keyakinan bahwa prospek perusahaan baik, dan karenanya ingin agar saham tersebut meningkat, ia ingin megkomunikasikan hal tersebut kepada investor. Manager bisa menggunakan hutang lebih banyak sebagai signal yang lebih credible. Karena perusahaan yang meningkatkan hutang bisa dipandang sebagai perusahaan yang yakin dengan prospek perusahaan di masa mendatang. Investor diharapkan akan menangkap signal tersebut, signal bahwa perusahaan mempunyai prospek yang baik.
6) Teori Keagenan (Agency Approach)
Menurut pendekatan ini, struktur modal disusun untuk mengurangi konflik antar berbagai kelompok kepentingan. Konflik antara pemegang saham dengan manager adalah konsep free-cash flow. Ada kecenderungan manager ingin menahan sumber daya sehingga mempunyai control atas sumber daya tersebut. Hutang bisa dianggap sebagai cara untuk mengurangi konflik leagenan free cash flow. Jika perusahaan menggunakan hutang, maka manager akan dipaksa untuk mengeluarkan kas dari perusahaan untuk membayar bunga.

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