...Chapter 8 Covalent Bonding and Molecular Structure Chapter 8: Covalent Molecular Structure Bonding and Chapter In Context In this chapter and the next, we examine chemical bonding in detail. We examined ionic bonding briefly in Chapter 2 and will do so in more detail in Chapter 11. We will also examine intermolecular forces in detail in Chapter 11. Here we will apply what you have learned about atomic structure (Chapter 6), electron configurations, and periodic trends (Chapter 7) to the chemical bonds formed between atoms and ions and the shapes of molecules and ions that contain covalent bonds. • 8-1 Biology: Molecular shape of enzymes specifically allow only certain reactions to occur. Drugs are developed that specifically fit into active sites in the enzyme to affect or even stop its action. Chapter 8 8.1 Interactions Between Particles: Coulomb’s Law 8.2 Covalent Bonding Basics 8.3 Lewis Structures 8.4 Bond Properties 8.5 Electron Distribution in Molecules 8.6 Valence-Shell Electron-Pair Repulsion Theory and Molecular Shape 8.7 Molecular Polarity Chapter Goals • Apply Coulomb’s Law. • Understand forces involved in covalent bonding. • Write Lewis symbols and Lewis structures. • Predict bond properties. • Understand charge distribution in molecules. • Use VSEPR theory. • Identify polar and nopolar species. Chapter 8 Covalent Bonding and Molecular Structure 8-2 8.1 Interactions Between Particles: Coulomb’s Law OWL Opening Exploration 8.1 Coulomb’s Law Matter is...
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...Chapter 10 Outline The Shapes of Molecules Introduction Whether we consider the details of simple reactions, the properties of synthetic material, or the intricate life-sustaining processes of living cells, molecular shape is a crucial factor. 10.1 Depicting Molecules and Ions with Lewis Structures Lewis structures, also called electron-dot structures or electron-dot diagrams, are diagrams that show the bonding between atoms of a molecule, and the lone pairs of electrons that may exist in the molecule. A Lewis structure can be drawn for any covalently-bonded molecule, as well as coordination compounds. Using the Octet Rule to Write Lewis Structures The octet rule tells us that all atoms want eight valence electrons (except for hydrogen, which wants only two), so they can be like the nearest noble gas. Use the octet rule to figure out how many electrons each atom in the molecule should have, and add them up. The only weird element is boron - it wants six electrons. Lewis Structures for Molecules with Single Bonds The atoms share a pair of electrons, and that pair is referred to as a bonding pair. The pairs of electrons which do not participate in the bond have traditionally been called "lone pairs". A single bond can be represented by the two dots of the bonding pair, or by a single line which represents that pair. The single line representation for a bond is commonly used in drawing Lewis structures for molecules. · Hydrogen atoms form one bond. · Carbon...
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...Postulates of Dalton’s Atomic Theory The main points of Dalton’s atomic theory, an explanation of the structure of matter in terms of different combinations of very small particles, are given by the following postulates: 1. All matter is composed of indivisible atoms. An atom is an extremely small particle of matter that retains its identity during chemical reactions. 2. An element is a type of matter composed of only one kind of atom, each atom of a given kind having the same properties. Mass is one such property. Thus, the atoms of a given element have a characteristic mass. 3. A compound is a type of matter composed of atoms of two or more elements chemically combined in fixed proportions. The relative numbers of any two kinds of atoms in a compound occur in simple ratios. Water, for example, a compound of the elements hydrogen and oxygen, consists of hydrogen and oxygen atoms in the ratio of 2 to 1. 4. A chemical reaction consists of the rearrangement of the atoms present in the reacting substances to give new chemical combinations present in the substances formed by the reaction. Atoms are not created, destroyed, or broken into smaller particles by any chemical reaction. Main Points of the Bohr Model Postulate 1: An electron in an atom moves in a circular orbit under the influence of coulomb attraction between the electron and the nucleus obeying the rules of classical mechanics. Postulate 2: An atom can exist in certain allowed or stationary states, with each...
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...Back Print Name Class Date Assessment Chapter Test B Chapter: Chemical Bonding PART I On the line at the left of each statement, write the letter of the choice that best completes the statement or best answers the question. ______ 1. An ionic bond results from electrical attraction between a. cations and anions. b. atoms. c. dipoles. d. orbital. ______ 2. A nonpolar covalent bond is unlikely when two atoms of different elements join because the atoms are likely to differ in a. density. b. state of matter. c. electronegativity. d. polarity. ______ 3. Bond length is the distance between two bonded atoms at a. their minimum potential energy. b. their maximum kinetic energy. c. their maximum potential energy. d. one-half the diameter of the electron cloud. ______ 4. To draw a Lewis structure, it is not necessary to know a. which atoms are in the molecule. b. bond energies. c. the number of valence electrons for each atom. d. the number of atoms in the molecule. ______ 5. For multiple covalent bonds to form in molecules, the molecules must contain carbon, nitrogen, or a. chlorine. b. hydrogen. c. oxygen. d. helium. ______ 6. The principle that states that atoms tend to form compounds in which each atom has eight electrons in its highest occupied energy level is called the a. rule of eights. b. configuration rule. c. Avogadro principle. d. octet rule. Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved. Modern Chemistry 51 Chapter Test Back ...
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...9, which are very closely related. You should consult the lab manual for relevant information on ‘geometries of molecules.’ There are Chapter notes available for this material under 'Modules' in Canvas. Learning Outcome for Chapters 8 and 9: When you complete reading the chapter and practicing the end-of-chapter exercises, you are expected the have the following skills as learning outcomes: * Use appropriate models of chemical bonding to explain the structure of molecules ------------------------------------------------- 1. Explain how the Octet Rule is used in the following situations; you should include relevant electron configurations to support your answer. a. ionic bond formation between Mg and P Mg would like to get rid of 2 electrons in the valence shell to obey the Octet rule and P would like to gain 3 electrons to obey the Octet rule. So P will take 2 of Mg electrons to become stable. b. covalent bond formation in NCl3 N would have to gain 3 electrons to obey the Octet rule and Cl would have to gain 1 electron. So N can pair with 3 Cl to become stable and Cl will be stable as well. 2. Write the abbreviated electron configuration for each of the following ions: a. Cr3+ b. Telluride ion (Te2—) [Ar]3d3 [Kr]4d105s25p4 3. Determine the total number of valence electrons for the following molecules (molecular formulas are given in the parenthesis): a. Niacin (C6H5NO2) - a vitamin, aka vitamin B3 ...
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...and stomach and dermal contact may produce severe burns, ulceration, and scarring in humans. Chronic (long-term) occupational exposure to hydrochloric acid has been reported to cause gastritis, chronic bronchitis, dermatitis, and photosensitization in workers. Prolonged exposure to low concentrations may also cause dental discoloration and erosion. Hydrochloric Acid is a strong chemical compound. It is a powerful substance with many uses. The bonding in hydrochloric acid is the reason why it has a high The two elements making up hydrochloric acid are Hydrogen and Chlorine. Each molecule of hydrochloric acid is made up of one Hydrogen atom and one chlorine atom sharing one electron each so that they both have a full outer shell. Hence the Molecular Formula of hydrochloric acid is HCl. Hydrogen has an electronegativity of 2.1 and Chlorine is 3.16. Therefore the difference in electronegativity is 1.06. This means that hydrochloric acid is a polar compound. A polar covalent bond occurs when there is a significant difference in the electronegativity values for the two bonded atoms. The bonding electron pair is drawn toward the more electronegative element in the bonded pair, leaving the other with a slight positive charge. Figure 2...
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...also known as Deuterium and finally Hydrogen-3, which is also known as Tritium. Although each isotope has a different number of neutrons; 0, 1 and 2, respectively. This has no impact on their chemical properties. But, it does however affect the physical properties. Namely their mass. Whereas Hydrogen-1 has an atomic mass of 1amu, Hydrogen-2 has an atomic mass of 2, due to the presence of a neutron in addition to the proton within the nucleus. And Hydrogen-3 has an atomic mass of 3amu as a result of another additional neutron. Each isotope also differs in its’ nuclear binding energy, this is a result...
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...University of Leeds, Leeds, UK Animal Biology 2nd edition Biochemistry 2nd edition Bioinformatics Chemistry for Biologists 2nd edition Developmental Biology Ecology 2nd edition Immunology 2nd edition Genetics 2nd edition Microbiology 2nd edition Molecular Biology 2nd edition Neuroscience Plant Biology Chemistry series Consulting Editor: Howard Stanbury Analytical Chemistry Inorganic Chemistry 2nd edition Medicinal Chemistry Organic Chemistry 2nd edition Physical Chemistry Psychology series Sub-series Editor: Hugh Wagner Dept of Psychology, University of Central Lancashire, Preston, UK Psychology Forthcoming titles Cognitive Psychology Physiological Psychology Organic Chemistry Second Edition G. L. Patrick Department of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Paisley University, Paisley, Scotland This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2005. "To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge's collection of thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore. tandf.co.uk.” © Garland Science/BIOS Scientific Publishers, 2004 First published 2000 Second edition published 2004 All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without permission. A CIP catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. ISBN 0-203-42761-0 Master e-book ISBN ISBN 0-203-44168-0 (Adobe eReader Format) ISBN 1 85996 264 5 (Print Edition) Garland Science/BIOS Scientific Publishers 4 Park Square...
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...d. | single covalent bond | b. | double covalent bond | e. | polar bond | c. | structural formula | f. | hydrogen bond | ____ 1. a depiction of the arrangement of atoms in molecules and polyatomic ions ____ 2. a covalent bond in which only one pair of electrons is shared ____ 3. a covalent bond in which two pairs of electrons are shared ____ 4. a covalent bond in which the shared electron pair comes from only one of the atoms ____ 5. a covalent bond between two atoms of significantly different electronegativities ____ 6. a type of bond that is very important in determining the properties of water and of important biological molecules such as proteins and DNA Match each item with the correct statement below. a. | network solid | e. | tetrahedral angle | b. | bonding orbital | f. | VSEPR theory | c. | dipole interaction | g. | sigma bond | d. | bond dissociation energy | ____ 7. energy needed to break a single bond between two covalently bonded atoms ____ 8. symmetrical bond along the axis between the two nuclei ____ 9. molecular orbital that can be occupied by two electrons of a covalent bond ____ 10. 109.5 ____ 11. shapes adjust so valence-electron pairs are as far apart as possible ____ 12. attraction between polar molecules ____ 13. crystal in which all the atoms are covalently bonded to each other Multiple Choice Identify the choice that best completes the statement or answers the question. ...
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...Chem Notes Unit 1: Quantitative Chemistry, Measurement and Data Processing Unit Conversions: dm3 (decimeter^3) = L (liters) cm3 (centimeter^3) = mL (milliliters) 0 ° C (degrees celsius) = 273.15 K (Kelvin) convert Celsius into Kelvin by adding 273.15 to the current value The difference between Accuracy and Precision: Accuracy → difference between average of measured values and true value Precision → the reproducibility of the measurements, how close they are to eachother Types of Error: Systematic Error → fundamental flaws in equipment, observer. Leads to values all higher or lower than actual value. High precision, low accuracy. Random Error → uncertainty in measurement devices. Leads to random variation in values. Always occurs and can generally not be improved. Precise measurements have low random error. Accurate measurements have low systematic error and generally low random error. Uncertainties: Graduated/Analog Device → ±1/2 of the smallest increment on the device. Digital Device → ±1 on the last digit the device records (it estimates for you.) Exact Values → No uncertainty. For all uncertainties the recorded value MUST be to the same decimal place as the uncertainty. Change your final answer's significant digits if necessary. Uncertainties should be rounded to ONE digit. Propagation of Uncertainties: Addition and Subtraction → Add uncertainties. Multiplication and Division → Calculate Relative Uncertainty by dividing...
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...[pic] Official TCC Course Syllabus |Discipline Prefix: CHM |Course Number: 111 |Course Title: College Chemistry I | | |Course Section: D04B | | |Credit Hours: 4 |Lecture Hours: 3 |Clinical Hours: |Lab Hours: 3 | |Contact Hours: 6 |Studio Hours: N/A |Semester: Fall | |Meeting Days/Time/Location: Fridays/1:30pm-4:20pm/Science Building | Instructor Information Name: Dr. Shahin Maaref Office Location: JD-30 Office Hours: TRF 9:00am-11:00am, TR 4:30pm-5:30pm & by appointment Contact Information: 822-7692 Blackboard site: http://learn.vccs.edu Instructor email address: smaaref@tcc.edu Course Information Course Description Explores the fundamental laws, theories, and mathematical concepts of chemistry. Designed primarily for science and engineering majors. Requires a strong background in mathematics. Part I of II. Prerequisites and/or Co-requisites Prequisites - None Corequisites – None It is recommended to have H.S. chemistry or CHM01 as prerequisites and MTH 03 or MTE 06 level or higher. ...
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...CHEMISTRY CHEMISTRY (CLASSES XI–XII) Rationale Higher Secondary Stage is the most crucial stage of school education because at this stage specialised discipline based, content oriented courses are introduced. Students reach this stage after 10 years of general education and opt for Chemistry with a purpose of mostly for pursuing their career in basic sciences or professional courses like medicines, engineering, technology and studying courses in applied areas of science and technology at tertiary level. Therefore, at this stage, there is a need to provide learners with sufficient conceptual background of Chemistry, which will make them competent to meet the challenges of academic and professional courses after the higher secondary stage. National Curriculum Framework for School Education – 2005 recommends a disciplinary approach with appropriate rigour and depth with the care that syllabus is not heavy and at the same time it is comparable to the international level. It emphasizes a coherent focus on important ideas within the discipline that are properly sequenced to optimize learning. It recommends that theoretical component of Higher Secondary Science should emphasize on problem solving methods and the awareness of Syllabus for Secondary and Higher Secondary Levels 22 historical development of key concepts of science be judiciously integrated into content. The present exercise of syllabus development in Chemistry at Higher Secondary Stage is based on this framework...
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...contents: Carbon Compounds and Chemical Bonds. Representative Carbon Compounds. An Introduction to Organic Reactions: Acids and Bases. Alkanes and Cycloalkanes: Conformations of Molecules. Stereochemistry: Chiral Molecules. Alkenes and Alkynes I: Properties and Synthesis. Alkenes and Alkynes II: Addition Reactions. Radical Reactions. Alcohols and Ethers. Conjugated Unsaturated Systems. Aromatic Compounds. Reactions of Aromatic Compounds. Aldehydes and Ketones I: Nucleophilic Additions to the Carbonyl Group. Aldehydes and Ketones II: Aldol Reactions. Carboxylic Acids and Their Derivatives: Nucleophilic Substitution at the Acyl Carbon. Amines. Carbohydrates. Lipids. Answers to Selected Problems. Glossary. Index. Solomons/Advices ADVICES FOR STUDYING ORGANIC CHEMISTRY 1. Keep up with your studying day to day –– never let yourself get behind, or better yet, be a little ahead of your instructor. Organic chemistry is a course in which one idea almost always builds on another that has gone before. 2. Study materials in small units, and be sure that you understand each new section before you go on to the next. Because of the cumulative nature of organic chemistry, your studying will be much more effective if you take each new idea as it comes and try to understand it completely before you move onto the nest concept. 3. Work all of the in-chapter and assigned problems. 4. Write when you study. over and over again. Write the reactions, mechanisms, structures, and so on, You need...
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...Science Content Standards A Message from the State Board of Education and the State Superintendent of Public Instruction. In 1998 California adopted academically rigorous content standards in science. The adoption of standards in each core subject area marked a turning point in the education reform movement that began in 1983 with the report A Nation at Risk: The Imperative for Educational Reform, by the National Commission on Excellence in Education. Until then, the reform movement had focused on important but largely structural improvements, such as more instructional time, minimum course requirements for high school diplomas, and an emphasis on local planning efforts to promote efficiency and effectiveness. The desire to improve student achievement was there, but the focus on content-that is, a comprehensive, specific vision of what students actually needed to know and be able to do-was lacking. Standards are a bold initiative. Through content standards in the core subjects, California began to redefine the state’s role in public education. For the first time, the knowledge and skills that students needed to acquire were explicitly stated for the most part by grade level, although science standards at the high school level were organized by discipline. The standards are rigorous. Students who master this content are on a par with those in the best educational systems in other states and nations. The content is attainable by all students, given sufficient time, except for those...
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...Chemistry -Study of the composition, structure, properties, and interactions of matter. -Central Science. BRANCHES OF CHEMISTRY 1. Inorganic chemistry is the study of the chemical nature of the elements and their compounds (except hydrocarbons—compounds composed of carbon and hydrogen). Involves substance that do not contain carbon or substances from non-living things. 2. Organic Chemistry, branch of chemistry in which carbon compounds and their reactions are studied. A wide variety of classes of substances—such as drugs, vitamins, plastics, natural and synthetic fibers, as well as carbohydrates, proteins, and fats—consist of organic molecules. Study of all substance containing carbon in combination of hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and other elements. 3. Analytical chemistry is the science of separating complex materials into simpler ones and detecting and measuring the constituents. 4. Physical chemistry is fundamental to all chemistry and deals with the application of physical laws to chemical systems and chemical change. Concerned with theories and experiments that describes the behaviour of chemicals. 5. Biochemistry is the chemistry of living organisms and life processes. Cell: Compound 1. Protein 2. Carbohydrates - sugar 3. Nucleic acid – DNA, RNA 4. Lipids – fats SCIENTIFIC METHOD * A logical approach to the solution of the problem. STEPS: 1. Identify the problem 2. Gathering Information 3. Formulate hypothesis 4. Experimentation...
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