...Philosophy of Adult Learning Introduction There are various theories and models associated with Androgyny; the science of adult learning, (Knowles, 1970). The focus of this paper is on reviewing these learning techniques across all disciplines. A brief review of Androgyny shows that the adult learners are self-directed, handling the problems rather than the subject matter, and are motivated from within. Adults usually learn best in real situations, those that are important to them in their course of business or on a personal level. A customer service manager may not need to know how to read a financial or budget (business concern) and yet they eagerly learn to do this process in order to understand why the state is raising their taxes (personal concern). Many adult learners have innate traits associated with theories that concerning learning. The following four philosophies, behaviorist, cognitive, constructive, and humanist, affect the adult learner and my intention is to give some insight to each. My personal learning philosophy however is more closely related to the behaviorist and humanistic philosophies. Behaviorism Behaviorism assumes that a learner is passive and responds to stimulus within the environment. Learners within this theory are probably the passive employee or student whose behavior can be positive or it can be negative and is reinforced as such. The reinforcement is a training mechanism that instills the knowledge on the individual through training, which...
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...Traditions EDU 528: Methods of Teaching in Adult Education Professor: Helen Mc Eachin Ladreine E. Price Date: 12 May 2012 Strayer University Although Jean Piaget (1896 – 1980) was looked upon as a patriarch of cognitive theories during his time, his interest in human thinking worked towards evaluating results of children intelligence tests as he tracked relationships between their ages and what types of mistakes were made. Absorbed with this information, he realized that different mistakes are made predictably by and within a certain age group which then forced his attention into what was found. With his observations, he concluded that children were not less intelligent than adults, but they actually think differently. Santrock, John W. (2008) Piaget established what is now known as the Cognitive theory, a behaviorism theory that applies emphasis to structure and development of individuals thought processes; as with memory, decision making and resolution, from youth to adulthood. Piaget, J. (1990) Piaget described key processes used by individuals in its attempt to become accustom to: assimilation and accommodation. Both of these processes are used throughout life as the person increasingly adapts to the environment in a more complex manner. Assimilation is the process of using or transforming the environment so that it can be placed in preexisting cognitive structures. Accommodations are the processes of changing cognitive structures in order to accept something from...
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...RUNNING HEAD: SERVICE LEARNING AND ADULTS Service Learning and Adult Education Jonathan M. Woodward The University of Southern Mississippi Continuing and Community Education, HE 717 Saturday, November 8, 2008 Service Learning and Adult Education Introduction One of the primary goals of the American educational system is to produce productive and active citizens. However, the connection between community involvement and educational institutions is not always nurtured. An innovative new approach in education aims to address this disconnect, service learning. Many times there is a distinction between academic course work and community service. Service learning is a pervasive new tactic that is meant to enhance the academic curriculum, as opposed to just being a second thought or unnecessary addition to coursework. Some research has even revealed that service learning participation has more benefits for students than taking part in traditional volunteer community service (Vogelgesang and Astin, 2000). The focus of one study written by M. Cecil Smith, “Does Service Learning Promote Adult Development? Theoretical Perspectives and Directions for Research,” focused on the effects of service learning as it relates to older adult learners. Smith quickly pointed out that very little research has been done on service learning that involves adult learners. In fact, adults are quite often the recipients of service learning as opposed to participants. Literature Review ...
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...As illustrated in Figure 2.1., there are tasks that are located outside ZPD; either too easy that the learner can already do independently or too difficult that the learner cannot carry out even under guidance of MKOs; for example, a task in which a child should solve a complicated Algebra equation. On the other hand, a more average zone is located between the two mentioned areas wherein the learner is faced with tasks slightly more complicated than his/her abilities although s/he has the potential to handle it with some help. Unlike ZAD, in this zone, as van Lier (1995) argues, there is “a range of knowledge and skills which the person can only access with someone’s assistance” (p. 190). Cole and Cole (2001) describe the term potential as indicating that provided assistance is a touch beyond an individual’s ZAD and assists completion of the task based on learner’s existing abilities. Accordingly, the focus of education programs should be on the ZPD in which the development in functioning is likely to be co-constructed during collaboration and in a bilateral process. After mediation, the extent of aforementioned three zones in Figure 2.1. shrinks, that is, the zone of what ‘can do independently’ (shown in Figure 2.1.) becomes even larger which indicates the expansion of the zone of current abilities which, in turn, indicates the need to define a new ZPD....
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...he tries to accomplish learning task as it relates to playing the keyboard. In this story three cognitive theories can be recognized, analyzed and they are all believed to produce different learning outcomes. These three theories are the Cognitive Information-Processing Theory, The Piaget’s Theory of Development as it relates to learning and lastly, The Interactional Theories of Cognitive Development. Each one of these theories presents itself in the manner in which Kermit develops a strategy for learning how to play the keyboard. In the cognitive information-processing approach declarative knowledge, procedural knowledge and memory play a part in completing a learning task. In the story, Kermit displays declarative knowledge which is the act of knowing when he notes the signature and the key. These tell him specifically how many beats per measure in combination with how many sharps or flats exist in the music. The procedural knowledge is the how to knowledge. This is generated when he actually learns how to read the music and plays the keyboard. The memory aspect of the cognitive information-processing theory comes into play when he uses his procedural knowledge, retrieved through memory to support him in developing a reaction, which is the pressing down of the key which is in correlation to the indicated score to produce the appropriate sound. This whole process of the cognitive information-processing is the act of being able to conduct a way to recognize the content of a given...
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...April 25, 2013 INFT 101- D92 LUO Summary Adult learning Theory is some times referred to as Andragogy. This theory is based on characteristics on how adults learn. The three steps related to adult learning are experience, critical reflection and development. Research conducted on adult learning theory helps to understand how adults learn better and activities can be developed to enhance their learning skills. Adult learning theory is a self-directed learning based on the assumption that education should focus on the development of the adult learner (Merriam, 2008). It enables the adult learner to become more in control and free. Today’s Army is composed of Soldiers who have chosen to serve voluntary to achieve various goals in life (Wilson & Smith, 2012). Soldiers may pursue education to get promoted to the next rank or to be able to get a job when they transition to Civilian life (Wilson & Smith, 2012). Recent studies conducted show the unemployment rate among veterans higher than non-veteran unemployment rates. Many Soldiers transition out with no intention to go to college although that was their intention when they joined the Military. Academic counselor have resolved that adult learning theory as a part of life mission is important in advising Soldiers make career based decisions (Wilson & Smith, 2012). Advisors use developmental academic advising, intrusive academic advising and prescriptive academic advising when they have...
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...publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical and photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright holder. Address inquiries to: Research and Development Branch Office of Learning and Teaching Department of Education and Training Level 2, 33 St Andrews Place GPO Box 4367 Melbourne 3001 Acknowledgments This resource has been developed by the Office of Learning and Teaching, Department of Education and Training, Victoria, 2004 Authors Sandra Mahar and Maddy Harford Contributions This publication was developed by the Research and Development Branch, Office of Learning & Teaching for the Department of Education and Training. Contents INTRODUCTION: THE IMPORTANCE OF LEARNING IN THE KNOWLEDGE ECONOMY 4 Defining Learning 5 Overview of the paper 6 THEORIES OF LEARNING 7 Cognitive Learning Theories 7 Social Learning Theories 7 Constructivist Theories 8 Experiential Learning 9 Adult Learning, or Andragogy 9 Multiple Intelligences 10 Situated Learning Theory and Communities of Practice 10 FACTORS AFFECTING LEARNING 12 Neurological development and functioning 12 Emotional and Social Factors 13 Generic Skills 14 The ICT Revolution 15 CONCLUSION 16 Bibliography 17 Selected Resources 17 Introduction: The Importance of Learning in the Knowledge Economy This paper is...
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...Pharaoh during the 7 th century BC, believed language was inborn and that children isolated from birth from any linguistic influence would develop the language they had been born with. Fast forward to the 15th century,King James of Scotland performed a similar experiment; the children were reported to have spoken good Hebrew. Akbar, a 16th century Mogul emperor of India, desired to learn whether language was innate or acquired through exposure to the speech of adults. He believed that language was learned by people listening to each other and therefore a child could not develop language alone. So he ordered a house built for two infants and stationed a mute nurse to care for them. The children did not acquire speech, which seemed to prove Akbar's hypothesis that language is acquired and does not simply emerge spontaneously in the absence of exposure to speech. Henceforth, modern linguists have been trying hard to crack the codes which govern the acquisition and learning of a language. Theories ranging from Jean Piaget's Cognitive Theory(1929), Skinner's Behaviorist Theory (1957), to Chomsky's The Innateness Hypothesis,...
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...REFLECTION ON CHILD DEVELOPMENT THEORIES COURSE SUBJECT: FACILITATING LEARNING 1 INSTRUCTOR: MR. ANTHONY VISTA SUBMITTED BY: JOANNE B. ATIS After the discussion on the different theories of child development, I realized how these theories influence us; our cognitive development, values, principles & morals, behavior, and the society as a whole. From the psychoanalytic theory of Sigmund Freud, I realized that individuals go through stages in childhood and adolescence that shape their adult personality. Our behavior is influenced by the unconscious mind and our early experiences as a child affect development in later life. Erik Erikson’s psychosocial theory can be a basis for analyzing personality and behavior, and also for understanding and facilitating personality development. It is also obviously relevant to modern life. Each social interaction has a potential impact or reinforcement on a person’s identity. As such, Erikson’s theory is useful for teaching, parenting, self-awareness, dealing with conflict, and generally for understanding self and others. From the four (4) stages of Jean Piaget’s cognitive theory, I learned the importance of two processes that are essential for development: assimilation which is learning to understand events or objects, based on existing structure; and accommodation which is expanding understanding based on the new information. Children provide different explanations of reality at different stages of cognitive development. I believe that learning...
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...Activity,” situative and cognitive perspectives have both made a significant impact on educational thinking and towards the improvement of education. The purpose of doing research relative to learning processes is to “inform those who are responsible for forming policy-so that our children will not be the victims of well-intentioned but ill informed educational practices.” (Anderson, Greeno, Reder, Simon 2000) Situational learning is an instructional approach that follows the work of Vygotsky where students are inclined to learn actively by participating in the learning experience. “Like Piaget, Vygotsky argued that cognitive development results from a complex interaction between heredity and environment.” (Bohlin, Durwin, Reese-Weber 2012) Vygotsky’s “Zone of Proximal Development” (ZPD) theory states that the purpose of education is to give children experiences that are within their zones of proximal development thereby promoting and encouraging their individual learning. ZPD is the difference between “children’s actual developmental level and their level of potential development.” (Bohlin, Durwin, Reese-Weber 2012) Skills and understandings contained within a child’s ZPD are the ones that have not yet emerged, but could emerge if the child engages in interactions with knowledgeable others (i.e. peers and adults) or in other supportive contexts (i.e. make believe play). Children shift from performing cognitive processes socially with an adult to performing them mentally...
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...Adult Learning Theory June 18, 2013 Summary This paper will explore developments in Adult Learning Theory from two different perspectives. First, in Sharan Merriam’s article, she discusses changes in current adult learning theory thought and how this impacts the future of learning environments for adults (Merriam, 2008). Then, Sandlin, Wright, & Clark present an argument on adult learning theory as viewed from a societal or cultural perspective with the world as the classroom as opposed to brick and mortar buildings (Sandlin, Wright, & Clark, 2011). Finally, the authors’ conclusions will be compared to discover if there is a common ground where the authors meet. Sharan Merriam is a well-known, published professor in the field of adult learning. In the first part of her article she outlines three major developments in adult learning theory. Merriam states, “The only constant across three updates is … transformational learning” (Merriam, 2008, p. 93). One major development is an expansion of thought into the complexity of adult learning. Another is the context in which learning takes place is growing in importance. Lastly, adult learning is not merely a cognitive process. “Adult learning is a multi-dimensional phenomenon…” (Merriam, 2008, p. 94). Transformational learning requires the student to be able to reflect and analyze one’s own thoughts as well as, the thoughts of others. This is crucial for adult learning to be successful (Merriam, 2008). Sandlin...
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...Social Cognitive Theory Brynn Hill Liberty University EDUC 205-B02 Abstract This paper discusses the development of the Social Cognitive Theory and how it can be applied to education. When applied, this theory can help students stay motivated and focused in class. It can also help gifted learners reach their full potential in a diverse classroom. The Social Cognitive Theory was developed by Albert Bandura in the 1960s. This theory “stresses the idea that much human learning occurs in a social environment.” (Schunk 2012). For instance, if a basketball player wants to be able to improve his free-throw shot, he could do this by observing a coach, or other basketball expert, and imitate his or her free-throw shot. Initially, these principles were applied to social skills, but now can be “applied to the learning of cognitive, motor, social, and self-regulations skills.” (Schunk 2012). Through time, this theory was able to help give teachers the strategies to motivate and help their students reach their full potential. There are three basic conjectures when it comes to learning and behavior in this theory. The first is the idea of triadic reciprocality. This is the idea “that personal, behavioral, and environmental factors influence one another in a bidirectional, reciprocal fashion.” (Benzon, Denler & Wolters 2014). This means that a personals cognitive perspective is influenced by three different factors: behavioral, contextual and cognitive. The second conjecture...
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...behaviours can be measured, trained and changed. Developmental perspectives is concerned with child development. Psychodynamic perspectives is concerned with the development of ‘self’. It is primarily a study of factors that may affect a child’s behaviour and development such as childhood experiences affecting emotions and behaviour as adults and the various conflicts throughout childhood that affect overall personality. Socio-cultural perspectives studies learning...
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...Constructivism (learning theory) Constructivism is a theory to explain how knowledge is constructed in the human being when information comes into contact with existing knowledge that had been developed by experiences. It has its roots in cognitive psychology and biology and an approach to education that lays emphasis on the ways knowledge is created in order to adapt to the world. Constructs are the different types of filters we choose to place over our realities to change our reality from chaos to order. Von Glasersfeld describes constructivism as “a theory of knowledge with roots in philosophy, psychology, and cybernetics”.[1] Constructivism has implications to the theory of instruction. Discovery learning, hands-on, experiential, collaborate, project-based, tasked-based are a number of application that base teaching and learning. Constructivists • John Dewey (1859–1952) • Maria Montessori (1870–1952) • Władysław Strzemiński (1893–1952) • Lev Vygotsky (1896–1934) • Jean Piaget (1896–1980) • George Kelly (1905–1967) • Heinz von Foerster (1911–2002) • Ernst von Glasersfeld (1917–2010) • Paul Watzlawick (1921–2007) • Edgar Morin (1921–) • Humberto Maturana (1928–) • Laszlo Garai (1935–) • David A. Kolb (1939–) Historical and Theoretical Roots According to Kliebard,[2] John Dewey created an active intellectual learning environment in his laboratory school during the early 20th century. Neuroscience now supports this form of active learning as the way people naturally...
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...Cognitive Theory: An Annotated Bibliography History of Education in America Pamela Allen November 12, 2007 INTRODUCTION The study of child development has inspired many theories. Psychologists have tried to understand why there is a difference between a child’s level of intelligence, motivation, social skills, and mannerisms. The cognitive theory helps explain each step of a child’s development with different aspects of each. The study of development of children is important to help parents, teachers and caregivers’ insight in the different ways children grow and learn. Cognitive theory helps explain how senses, environment, and an individual’s brain effect how and what kind of personality develops and possibly predicting a future. If parents believe that intelligence can be strongly influenced by experience, they make special efforts to help them learn, if believed inborn and unchangeable, they are less likely to make any effort. Children have their own internal drives and needs as well as heredity endowments that influence development. The cognitive theory is only a stepladder and there may be different equations added in either direction but we are given a building block foundation. Cognitive theories emphasize the mental aspect of development like logic and memory and focus on Jean Piaget’s theory children are born with an inborn ability to adapt to their environment. STATEMENT OF THE ISSUE TO BE INVESTIGATED ...
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