“The work of each of these artists represents a particular depth of understanding and sensitivity about the history of our nation.”
Dakar: Places in Our Live [1]

“Thanks to art, instead of seeing one world, our own, we see it multiplied and, as many original, artists as there are, so many worlds are at our disposal.”
Andre Marlaux[2]

Introduction

Art is a tenuous relationship as history would attest but it is one that could not be belittled or undermined. It produced various schools of thought among the ancient Greeks and continues to provide profound forum of debate among contemporary scholars. As President Ferdinand Marcos have stated, “For the artist has always been a dynamic factor in social and cultural development and art is always an essential vehicle of truth and of relationship”.[3] In the realm of human experience, the artist has to confront the truth in its various critical situations consequently depending on, his interpretation of urgent realities; he becomes either the advocate of change or an adversary of it. But he can never be uncommitted nor be irresponsible. In the present time where plans and options for governments shift in the global expediency, the artist must always guard against obstacles to national growth and progress. "Art and Globalization makes an important contribution to the diverse critical practices and aesthetic performances that define the global era.[4]” These remarks were written for the book entitled Arts and Globalization to show how the writers have orchestrated a range of perspectives passionately expressed by a roster of talented voices from across the world. Artists and arts institutions have long been aware of the importance of global flows of artists and their works. National and international politics have, of course, affected both art content and the ability of artists to participate in international events. There are additional links between the arts and international relations, however. The transfer of artworks is often an announcement of changes in political relationships among states, whether as a result of imperial activity or of conflict. The refusal to permit the transfer of artworks among states is an important means, as assumption, of establishing cultural autonomy or protecting specific cultural, social, and political values. The transfer of ideas, perspectives, and arts is a type of public diplomacy, in regards with international relations, known as Cultural Diplomacy. It includes the exchange of ideas, information, art, and other aspects of culture among nations and their peoples in order to foster mutual understanding. The purpose of cultural diplomacy is for the people of a foreign nation to develop an understanding of the nation's ideals and institutions in an effort to build broad support for economic and political goals.[5] Thus, promoting the transfers of artworks and artists among states is a type of public diplomacy that, it is believed, will carry with its political influence. Across a growing range of types of issues in international law, artworks and artists are used to effect power relations, to represent power relations, and as a venue for conflicts over power among states, from the remote portion of history up to the contemporary times.

Retracing a Power from the Past

2.1 Arts and Culture In its sedimentary composition, in Spain and in the reserved mounts of southwestern France are numerous caves decorated with paintings that date from the late Old Stone Age. In the caverns of Lascaux there is, for example, a giant chamber whose lofty ceiling is covered with paintings of antelope, bulls, horses, and other animals.[6] The environment is too deep and dark for human habitation and this may have been a sanctuary for religious rites, or less likely, a setting for ritualistic magic to insure successful hunting, or a powwow of primitive gathering, there have been many interpretations but no one knows for sure. No one knows the intentions of the people who created the images, but there is no question who these people were. They were artists. Using intellect and imagination, late Paleolithic people had invented representation, a momentous step in the evolution of culture. The physical world is explored by the sciences; the social sciences make discoveries about the behavior and activities of people in various groups; the arts probes the inner meaning: fears, hopes, loves, delights as individuals act and react within a social context. As James Adams noted, “All art is social because it is the result of a relationship between the artist and his time”. Art is also an exploration, and the discoveries made can be expressed as concepts and percepts. Concepts are tangible ideas such as friendship, beauty, truth, and justice. What we perceive in our senses are percepts: line, taste, color, aroma, volume, pitch.[7] Artists express concepts by the unique manner they choose to arrange the percepts, that is, the sense-apparent objects and materials. The invention of art symbolized major changes in the lives of people no longer at the mercy of the very primitive elements. The creation of art also signified the emergence of individual artists. Lugging materials down through winding cave passages and erecting scaffolding were undoubtedly communal efforts, but the artwork was done by an individual. In today’s high technology, nuclear threatened times, the art of Lascaux is a poignant reminder of our kinship with stone Age artists who, along with multitude of successors, inspire us to recall our humanity, our intellect and imagination, our creative potential for a better life, for a better culture, to provide better communication that transpires in all of us.[8] Art remains important to the informational state as a means by which symbolic power can be exercised, but in this environment additional political uses of art become available for art, too, can be understood from an informational perspective. The exchange of art and culture is a powerful tool in finding common ground and building more stable relationships, mutual affection for the things that unite us, and genuine respect — even where we differ. Cultural diplomacy, an essential facet of many states’ foreign policy, enhances cross-cultural understanding and opens new avenues of dialogue and collaboration between individuals and nati
Cultural Diplomacy

3.1. Cultural Diplomacy Most social scientists today view culture as consisting primarily of the symbolic, ideational, and intangible aspects of human societies. The essence of a culture is not its artifacts, tools, or other tangible cultural elements but how the members of the group interpret, use, and perceive them. It is the values, symbols, interpretations, and perspectives that distinguish one people from another in modernized societies; it is not material objects and other tangible aspects of human societies. People within a culture usually interpret the meaning of symbols, artifacts, and behaviors in the same or in similar ways.[9] That is to say, a culture is a set of values and practices that create meaning for a society. This includes both high culture such as the education and the arts, and popular culture, or the ones that appeal to the masses. These are the elements that states aim to reveal foreign spectators when entering into a cultural diplomacy. This type of diplomacy is a soft power, which is the ability to get what you want through attraction rather than coercion or payments. It arises from a country's culture, political ideals and policies.[10] This indicates that the value of culture is its ability to attract foreign audiences to a nation. Cultural diplomacy is also a component of public diplomacy. Cultural diplomacy has been called the linchpin of public diplomacy because cultural activities have the possibility to demonstrate the best of a nation. In this way, cultural diplomacy and public diplomacy are intimately linked.[11] The great intent of cultural diplomacy is to influence a foreign audience and use that influence, which is built up over the long term, as a sort of good will reserve to win support for policies. In turn, cultural diplomacy can help a nation better understand the foreign nation it is engaged with and foster mutual understanding.[12] It allows the government to create a foundation of trust and a mutual understanding that is neutral and built on people-to-people contact. Another unique and important element of cultural diplomacy is its ability to reach youth, non-elites and other audiences outside of the traditional embassy circuit. In short, cultural diplomacy plants the seeds of ideals, ideas, political arguments, spiritual perceptions and a general view point of the world that may or may not flourish in a foreign nation. Cultural Diplomacy can and does employ and make use of a nation’s culture. In many means cultural diplomacy continuously finds way to exercise its uses and power such as the promotion and explanation of nation’s ideas and social policies; religious diplomacy, demonstration of thoughtfulness and respect, establishment of cultural channels, educational program, exhibitions of the potential objects of culture; and the use of arts. All of these tools seek to bring understanding of a nation's culture to foreign audiences. They work best when they are proven to be relevant to the target audience, which requires an understanding of the audience. [13] These tools are generally not created by a government, but produced by the culture and then the government facilitates their expression abroad to a foreign audience, with the purpose of gaining influence. Cultural Diplomacy initially incorporates activities undertaken by, or involving, a wide range of participants such as singers, artists, and so on, but also the manifestation of their artistry, such as artistic mediums through films, visual arts, and interactive arts, the promotion of aspects of the culture and arts of a state, the exchange of people, such as talents and academics. According to Sir Edmund Hillary, an Indian commissioner, “activities undertaken within cultural diplomacy’s scope manifest an aspect of the culture of the polity the government represents”. The range of activities within this kind of diplomacy is wide and is no longer produced for, and viewed by, the elites. It now more often includes cultural and artistic activity targeted at the wider population, particularly the mass – popular culture. Examples of this broader scope of Cultural Diplomacy includes educational scholarships, visits of scholars, intellectuals, academics and artists both domestically and abroad, since we are taking about international relations, cultural group performances, artist performances, artist exhibitions, artist lecture conferences, seminars, and actual lecture-demonstrations, and the promotion of one’s culture through festivals abroad and support for festivals of other nations held domestically, establishing mutual trust and common grounds relating to culture and the arts, the commissioning of busts, statues, and portraits of national leaders, the presentation of books, works, musical instruments to visiting dignitaries and diplomatic missions abroad.

Cultural Diplomacy and the Arts: Art Diplomacy in Practice

4.1 The Statue of Liberty, 1886 The Statue of Liberty, designed by Frenchman Frédéric Auguste Bartholdi, was given as a gift to the USA on October 28th, 1886. The statue represents Libertas, the Roman goddess of freedom. She bears a torch, a tablet with the date of the American Declaration of Independence, while a broken chain lies at her feet. The statue has been a tourist destination, a backdrop for political addresses and constitutional amendments, and served a multitude of other cultural functions in its 128-year stay on Liberty Island. The timing of the gift was also of great significance, falling on the centennial anniversary of American independence, and as such the statue came to serve as a monument to many different things: political cooperation between France and America; the end of slavery in America; American national unity; immigration and economic opportunity; political liberty and freedom around the globe. The gift also came at an important time for inter-cultural relations on a global scale – many World Fairs and International Exhibitions were held in the late 19th century to promote international trade and cultural exchange, a time at which the potential of international cooperation and mutual understanding were becoming increasingly apparent.[14]

4.2. Llanggolen International Music Eisteddfod, 1947 The first ever international music festival to be held in Wales was held in 1947 by Harold Tudor, an officer of the British Council. A few years prior to the first festival, Harold invited several members of governments' in-exile to attend a music and arts event in Bangor, Wales. Tudor was inspired by the success of the visit and the positive reception it gained, as illustrated to him by a letter he received from one of the attendees appreciating the way in which music can alleviate the effects of war. The 1947 International Eisteddfod was unanimously heralded as a great success with several acts from all over the globe performing and competing together. A poignant moment in the festival's history occurred in 1949, just four years after the end of the war, when a German choir took part in the festival. The choir was introduced to the stage by the compère as 'our friends from West Germany' and received a warm reception and a rapturous applause from the audience. To this day Llangollen International Musical Eisteddfod continues to showcase talent from all over the world. The Llangollen International Musical Eisteddfod acts as platform of cultural exchange in which participants and audience members can share in the joy of an international celebration of music and dance. By easing cross-cultural tensions it has proved to be successful in its mission to promote peace.[15]

4.3. The Family of Man, 1959 In the 1950’s the Soviet Union had a reputation that was associated with peace, international class solidarity and progress due to its sponsorship of local revolutionary movements for liberation. The United States was known for its involvement in the Korean War and for preserving the status quo. In an effort to change this perception, the United States Information Agency sponsored a photographic exhibition titled The Family of Man. The display originally showed in the Museum of Modern Art in New York City, but then USIA helped the display to be seen in ninety one locations in thirty nine countries.[16] The exhibition was a feat, containing five hundred three photos from sixty eight countries which represented two hundred and seventy three photographers, one hundred sixty three of them were Americans, were selected from almost two million pictures submitted by famous and unknown photographers. These photos are grouped thematically to offer striking snapshots of the human experience: they linger on birth, love, and joy but also touch on war, privation, illness, and death. Steichen's intention was to prove, visually, the universality of human experience and photography's role in its documentation.[17] After its initial showing at The Museum of Modern Art in 1955, the exhibition toured the world for eight years, making stops in thirty-seven countries on six continents. More than nine million people viewed the exhibit.[18]

4.4. Sokolniki Exhibition, 1959 Exhibitions were often used during the Cold War to demonstrate culture and progress by both the United States and the Soviet Union. In 1959, the American National Exhibition was held on Sokolniki Park, which was only 15 minutes from the Red Square by Subway. The exhibition was opened by Vice President Richard Nixon and attended by Walt Disney, Buckminster Fuller, William Randolph Hearst, and senior executives from Pepsi, Kodak and Macy's. It featured American consumer goods, cars, boats, RCA color TVs, food, clothing, etc., and samples of American products such as Pepsi. There was a typical American kitchen set up inside in which spectators could watch a Bird's Eye frozen meal be prepared. The most popular question was "what is the meaning of the American Dream?" The Soviets tried to limit the audience by only giving tickets to party members and setting up their own rival exhibition. But ultimately people came, and the souvenir pins that were given out turned up in every corner of the country. The most popular items were the Bible and a Sears catalogue. The guides for the exhibition were American graduate students, including African Americans and women, who spoke Russian. This gave Russians the ability to speak to real Americans and ask difficult questions. The ambassador to Moscow, Llewellyn Thompson, commented that "the exhibition would be ‘worth more to us than five new battleships."[19] Exhibitions like this were used to display the best a culture had to offer and basically show off in a way that appeared non-threatening and even friendly.[20]

4.5. Jazz, 1950 – 1960 Jazz originally surfaced in the Soviet Union during the 1920s and 1930s, but quickly faded. After World War II, jazz began to reemerge, but was condemned by Andrei Zhdanov.[30] He considered jazz as corrupt and capitalistic due to the fact that it grew out of the United States during a time of political unrest.[21] During the 1950s to 1960s, the Civil Rights movement, the decolonization of Africa and Asia, and the cultural and political rivalry of the United States and the Soviet Union created the need for cultural exchange. As a result, the United States government sent a jazz band composed of African American musicians abroad to tour places, including the Middle East and Africa, with the goal of the black musicians establishing connections with their African heritage.[22]

4.6. Philippine Madrigal Singers, 1963 The Madrigal Singers were organized in 1963 by the National Artist Professor Andrea Veneracion. The group is composed of students, faculty and alumni from all the different colleges of the University of the Philippines. The choir is famous as it consistently won all the prizes in the world's most famous choral competitions: Arezzo and Gorizia in Italy, Marktoberdorf in Germany, Spittal in Austria, Neuchatel in Switzerland, Tours in France, Varna in Bulgaria, Debrecen in Hungary, Cantonigros, Tolosa and Torrevieja in Spain. They hold the distinction of being the first choir in the world to win the European Grand Prix for Choral Singing twice, 1997 and 2007. The Madrigal Singers had quite a far reaching influence on the Philippine and Asian choral scene. The group was even recognized in 2009 by the UNESCO as Artists for Peace for "putting fame and influence at the service of UNESCO's ideals and efforts to promote cultural diversity, intercultural dialogue and a culture of peace".

4.7. Monument of Multiculturalism, 1985 Designed by Italian artist Francesco Perilli, the Monument to Multiculturalism is located in Toronto, Canada in front of Union Station. It was commissioned by the Congress of Italian Canadians and was unveiled on 1 July 1985 by the then Mayor of Toronto, in honour of multiculturalism in Toronto. In the shape of the globe, the monument represents the creation of a new world, demonstrating how individuals and communities from around the world have made Toronto and Canada their home. The base of the sculpture is engraved with script from the United Nations Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, which advocates the freedoms individuals from minority groups have; despite ones ethnic, religious or linguistic background, one shall not be denied the right to express and enjoy their culture, practice their religion or speak their language. Below an official statement on multiculturalism is inscribed which appreciates that there is no single culture in Canada and there is no superior citizen or group of citizens, thus everyone should be treated fairly and equally. The message advocated by this monument is locally, nationally and internationally appreciated and is important in encouraging the mantra that everyone is equal regardless of their cultural and religious context, something that is all to often forgotten. Thus this sculpture is significant in promoting multiculturalism and an appreciation and understanding of the various backgrounds of individuals within a community.[23]

4.8. The Beatles, 1985 – 1991 The effect The Beatles had in Russia during the Cold War is an example of how music artists and their songs can become political. During this time, rock music channeled liberal “Western” ideas as a progressive and modernized art form.[24] The Beatles symbolized the Western culture in a way that introduced new ideas that many believe assisted in the collapse of communism. As a result, the Beatles served as cultural diplomats through their popularity in the Soviet Union. Their music fostered youth communication and united people with a common spirit of popular culture.

4.9. Pan-African Film Festival, 1992 Pan-Africanism is an ideal; a state of mind; and in certain cases, a religion. Throughout history, African leaders and intellectuals have dreamed of uniting people of African descent all around the world. After the African Union was created - with a focus on stronger international relations within the African continent and outside - the Pan-African film festival was created with the same ethos in 1992 in Los Angeles. The festival collects, presents, and showcases a broad spectrum of Black creative works, aiming to promote cultural understanding among people of African descent. Every year the Pan-African Film Festival showcases over one hundred and fifty new films and over one hundred artists.[25]

4.10. September Eleven Attacks, 2002 A similar effort like an exhibit was carried out by the United States Department of State in February 2002 entitled Images from Ground Zero. The display included twenty seven images, detailing the September 11 attacks by Joel Meyerowitz that circulated, with the backing of embassies and consulates, to sixty nations. The display was intended to shape and maintain the public memory of the attack and its aftermath. The display sought to show the human side of the tragedy, and not just the destruction of buildings. The display was also intended to show a story of recovery and resolution through documenting not only the grief and pain, but also the recovery efforts. In many countries where the display was ran, it was personalized for the population. For example, relatives of those who died in the Towers were often invited to the event openings.[26] In this way, the US was able to put their own spin on the tragedy and keep the world from forgetting.

4.11. Peace Portraits, 2004 In 2004 the famous Chinese photographer Deng Wei -pioneer of portrait photography of celebrities- held the exhibition “Peace Portraits” in New York, in the United Nations Headquarters. He focused on the promotion of peace, harmonious coexistence and collaborative development for all mankind. The world's celebrity portraits displayed include political personalities like George H.W. Bush, Ronald Reagan, Yitzhak Rabin, Henry Kissinger, Mainza Chona, but also eminent cultural figures such as Chinese American architecture Leoh Ming Pei, the explorer Levy Arnason, English sculptor Elisabeth Frink, Canadian photographer Yousuf Karsh.

4.12. All Our Yesterdays, 2014 This large exhibition provided an opportunity to learn about the lives of European citizens. The photos capture the everyday life of men and women who lived before the Second World War. The exhibition is the result of the collaboration of international partners, such as museums, archives, private enterprises, public administrations and agencies from 13 EU member states, meeting in the Europeana Photography project (EUROPEAN Ancient Photographic vintage repositories of Digitized Pictures of Historic quality). This project saw the digitization of collections of vintage photographs from 1839 with the first example of images from Fox Talbot and Daguerre to the beginning of the Second World War, 1939.[27]

4.13. Pasinaya, 2015 Pasinaya[28] grows asean wings as the Cultural Center of the Philippines’ annual open house festival celebrates the integration of asean countries. The Pasinaya, now on its 11th year, is the biggest multi-arts festival in the country showcasing more than 3,000 artists and 300 shows in all CCP performance venues and other satellite venues. Pasinaya is celebrating the diversity and variety of asean cultures through the different performing arts. The Pasinaya welcomed the 1st ASEAN Performance Arts Markets that brought in delegates from the different ASEAN member states. The Pasinaya coincided with the asean performing arts, market hosted by Manila. The asean performing arts, market offers opportunities for networking, showcasing of performance samplers and business matching of ASEAN performances within the ASEAN region and with the world. Contemporary, traditional, as well as innovative works by emerging and seasoned ASEAN artists in music, dance and theatre will be featured.[29]
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[1] "Dakar: Places in Our Lives Catalog," Art in Embassies Program, United States Embassy, Dakar, Senegal, (2001).
[2] Cross, Lamm. The Humanities in Western Culture: A Search for Human Value (Volume 11, Edition IX). USA: Wm. C. Brown Communications, Inc., 2001. P.5.
[3] Marcos, Ferdinand, “Relationship between State and Arts,” Philippine Daily Express, (15 June 1982): 1.
[4] Homi K. Bhabha, foreword to Art and Globalization, by James Elkins, Zhivka Valiaviharska, and Alice Kim (Penn State Press, 2010).
[5] Sandra Braman, “Arts and International Relations,” Arts in Society, 2006, accessed January 26, 2015, http://a06.cgpublisher.com/proposals/330/index_html.
[6] Boas, Franz. Primitive Art: Dover Books on Anthropology and Folklore. New York: Dover Publication, 1995.
[7] Speed, Harold. The Practice and Science of Drawing. New York: Dover Publication, 1972.
[8] Cross, Lamm. The Humanities in Western Culture: A Search for Human Value (Volume 11, Edition IX). USA: Wm. C. Brown Communications, Inc., 2001.
[9] Banks, J.A., Banks, & McGee, C. A. “Multicultural education,” Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon, 1989.
[10] Joseph S. Nye, Soft Power. “The Means to Success in World Politics” Cambridge: Perseus Books, 2004.
[11] United States, Department of State, Advisory Committee on Cultural Diplomacy, Diplomacy Report of the Advisory Committee on Cultural Diplomacy,
[12] Mark Leonard, "Diplomacy by Other Means," Foreign Policy 132 September and October, 2002.
[13] Ibid.
[14] Postponing Bartholdi's statue until there is liberty for colored as well". The Cleveland Gazette (Cleveland, Ohio). November 27, 1886.
[15] http://international-eisteddfod.co.uk/en/whats-on/the-parade-of-nations
[16] Nicholas J. Cull, "Public Diplomacy: Taxonomies and Histories," Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 616, March 2008, 39-40.
[17] Jay, Bill. "The Family of Man A Reappraisal of 'The Greatest Exhibition of All Time,' Insight, Bristol Workshops in Photography, Rhode Island, Number 1, 1989.
[18] "Family of Man". UNESCO Memory of the World Programme. 2008-05-16. Retrieved 2009-12-14.
[19] Nicholas John. Cull, The Cold War and the United States Information Agency: American Propaganda and Public Diplomacy, 1945-1989 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008), 162-167.
[20] The Exhibition Moscow, p. 131.
[21] Fosler-Lussier, Danielle, “Jazz Diplomacy: Promoting America in Cold War Era by Lisa E. Davenport (review),” American Music 31, no. 1, 2013, P117-118.
[22] Von Eschen, Penny M, Satchmo Blows Up the World: Jazz Ambassadors Play the Cold War. (Harvard University Press, 2004), 10, 13, 34, 225.
[23] Anne-Marie Mooney Cotter (28 February 2011). Culture clash: an international legal perspective on ethnic discrimination. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. p. 13.
[24] Richmond, Yale. Cultural Exchange and the Cold War: Raising the Iron Curtain. (University Park, PA: Penn State University Press, 2004), 205-209.
[25] King, Susan (February 6, 2013). "The world comes calling at the Pan African Film & Arts Festival". The Los Angeles Times. Retrieved January 24, 2014.
[26] Liam Kennedy, "Remembering September 11: Photography as Cultural Diplomacy," International Affairs 79, no. 2 (March 2003): 315-323.
[27] http://ec.europa.eu/digital-agenda/en/news/all-our-yesterdays-europeana-photography-exhibition
[28] Accessed February 18, 2015. http://www.wordhippo.com/what-is/the-meaning-of/filipino-word-65da73e86ea4354e0569148f4e31e35a7e22daa3.html
[29] http://culturalcenter.gov.ph/press-room/pasinaya-salutes-asean-diversity/