Running Heading: Discrimination or Inequality: The Ideal Women Body Shape

Kelly Rowland
Research Paper: SOC – 412 - 341 Tarleton State University- Central Texas
Professor: Dietert, Michelle
Summer, 2008

Discrimination or Inequality: The Ideal Women Body Shape
When I think of how the American culture views the woman body shape as the epitome of feminity, I get a little worried. In our society and in many other cultures, women are judged according to their physical appearance. Whether it is Africa, Asia, or the United States, women psychic can make life easier or harder for them. Many women become obsessed, depressed, and compulsive about their body shape. Body dissatisfaction can lead to eating disorders and low self-esteem Research on eating disorders have been concentrated on the effects of the wafer thin western Europe and North America body types (Forbes, Doroszewicz, Card, and Adams-Curtis, 2004, pg 333). Being wafer then started between the 1940’s and 1950’s. Very slim fashion models paraded across the run ways wearing the latest fashions on display to the world. As we all know, fashion models are seen as some of the most beautiful women in the world. Thus the ideal woman body shape surfaced.
Rodin, Silberstein & Striegel- Moore are just a few of the researchers who have concluded that women who achieve extreme slender body types is unhealthy and unobtainable for long period of time ((Forbes, Doroszewicz, Card, and Adams-Curtis, 2004, pg 333). I agree with Brumberg (1997) that although society has allowed women to have equal rights as men, the social expectations of all women body shape have becoming unrealistic and impossible to maintain. If a woman becomes pregnant, she is expected to get back to her pre-pregnancy weight in no time. For example, the model Heidi Klum is a beautiful woman who has had several children relatively close in birth. She has managed to obtain her pre-pregnancy weight after each birth. I don’t know if it her genes or her just being pressured by societies demands of the ideal female body shape to lose the weight. Many women who see this are distraught and depressed when they are not able to achieve such an unrealistic task. Negative comments and self-examination seems to occur when a women does not subject herself to societies version of the ideal body shape. Body dissatisfaction measured by the Figure Rating Scale suggests that mothers and daughters experience body dissatisfaction. Generational differences, cohort and developmental effect, and the mother’s larger body size may cause the daughter to be open to the slender body type. There are several instruments, such as the Sociocultural Attitudes Toward Appearance Questionnaire, Internalization Scale, Awareness Scale, and Ambivalent Sexism Inventor researchers use to evaluate the average women depiction of herself and the ideal women body shape (Forbes, Adams-Curtis, Jobe, White, Revak, Zivcic-Becirevic, and Pokrajac-Bulian, 2005, pg. 1). Many women will blame advertisers and the media for discriminating against the average, realistic women body shape. Research has shown that when average sized models are used for advertisement, the negative impression on women’s body image is hindered.
In a study by Halliwell & Dittmar (2004) that compared women in professions that were different from the focus and encouragement of the sociocultural ideal of thinness for women. These women included 75 employees in fashion advertising and 75 teachers in secondary schools. There were advertisements of thin, average, and no models shown to the participants in the study. High internalizers of feeling bad about their body image after seeing the advertisements of the thin models compared to the other images were present in both groups of participants (Dittmar & Howard, 2004, pg 1). Many women are subject to feeling like this every time they turn the television on or look at a billboard, because we are in a society were thin is better. In the study, teachers were less body conscious when they saw average-sized models in the advertisements. Surprisingly, the fashion advertisers body focused anxiety did not change when they viewed the advertisements of average-size models. The study concluded that women in professional environments are less body conscious and can experience increased body-esteem when exposed to average-sized models. Unfortunately, women in body conscious professions experience no relief from worrying about their appearance (Dittmar & Howard, 2004, pg. 1). Research has proved over and over again that stick –thin models are not the ideal body shape for women. Even though women in the western culture are most prevalent to be discriminated and have inequality practiced against them, it is also occurs in other cultures too. In the early 1990s, the thin ideal body shape and body dissatisfaction was thought to only be culturally practiced in Western Europe and North America, except this was not true. Asian, Africa, and Eastern Europe societies are affected by the pressures of the ideal female body shape (Forbes, Doroszewicz, Card, and Adams-Curtis, 2004, pg 332).
Do men discriminate against women who are not the ideal body shape? In a study involving multiple measures of body image, it was surprising that women rated their ideal body shape as thinner than their current figure. The figure they believed that was most attractive to the opposite sex was thinner than the actual figure preferred by men (Thompson & Dolce, 1989, pg. 473). Is there discrimination against women who are not the ideal body shape? Yes, but legal protection is limited under American with Disabilities Act (ADA). When estimating weight based wage peruilties for men and women, white women who are 20% over the ideal body weight suffer greater in wage penalties than black men who are 100% over standard weight. It is not until men are over 100% standard weight that he may undergo wage penalties. For weight-based wage penalties women may experience, Title VII, “gender-plus” would be the legal standard to use (Maranto & Stenoien, 2000, pg 9). Society perceptions and attitudes help encourage discriminating behaviors and beliefs toward the overweight women. In this society average size is considered non-ideal or overweight. The psychological impact society has inflicted on women about their body shape weakens the person just as much as racial, ethnic, religious beliefs, handicaps, and sexual preference discrimination in our culture (Maranto & Stenoien, 2000, pg 14).
Many researchers believe that egalitarianism, refusal of traditional roles of feminity, and respect for the female body in the past protected women from being conscious of their physical appearance and thin body ideal. But because of the fall of the socialist system and the incline of market economies, women physical appearance was no longer protected (Forbes, Doroszewicz, Card, and Adams-Curtis, 2004, pg 332). Social and economic stress combined with the launching of Western beliefs and changing women roles have played a part in women body dissatisfaction and ideal thin body shape. Sexist beliefs are greatly believed to have powered the media and society to push this hideous burden of the thin ideal body on women. Hostile sexism and benevolent sexism are the two kinds of sexism according to Glick and Fiske. Hostile sexism excuses patriarchy by the slander of women, and is practiced toward women who do not conform to traditional gender roles. Benevolent sexism idealizes traditional submissive female roles where the women are totally dependent on the man. Though the women may feel protected and affection, but these feelings are based on her being inferior and inadequate. The traditional submissive women may feel as though she has the benefits of being protected and esteemed from benevolent sexism, but the ultimate price she pays is being inferior then the man. This type of behavior allows men to determine what is ideal for women. Whether it’s her body shape, beauty, or roles played in society. Based on Franzoi’s research, he concluded that women high in benevolent sexism are likely to fall victim to the media beliefs of the thin body ideal, be unhappy with their bodies, and use cosmetics for superficial reason (Forbes, Doroszewicz, Card, and Adams-Curtis, 2004, pg 332).
Weight- based discrimination is not just practiced among obese individuals, but against women who do not possess the ideal body image of the wafer thin model. Research has proved that women suffer negative psychological and social experiences because of weight-based discrimination. In occupational hiring, women are discriminated against because of their body image. Even prejudice and inequity are present in the interview process of occupational hiring. During an experimental study, researchers randomly assigned participants to a fictional job applicant. Participants are shown a picture or given a written description of an average or over weight applicant with the same job skills. The participants then decided which applicant is best for the job. Individuals who were thinner were picked as more desirable for the job. Unfortunately, when applicants share the same job skills, some employers believe that choosing the thinner women versus the non ideal body shaped women to hire is better (Swami, Chan, Wong, Furnham, and Tov’ee, 2008, pg. 969).
Ideal body shapes are apparent even in other cultures. In Hong Kong, Chinese women are under the scrutiny of the depiction of the ideal body image as well as her other nationality counterparts. For three decades the Hong Kong Beauty Pageant has awarded the thinner and taller participants as winners of the crown. Curvaceous body shapes with a narrow waist and full hips depict feminine beauty in the Chinese culture. To the contrary, it has been believed historically that the Chinese culture believed “plumpness” describes feminine beauty (Leug, Lam, and Sze, 2001, pg 39). From my own experience as an African American, most black men prefer this same body type. A woman should be curvaceous with a very flat stomach, full hips, and very plump buttocks. Studies show that eating disorders have increased in the Chinese culture for the last two decades. All of this is believed to be taking place because female beauty standards have changed to glorify thinness. Several studies examine the changes for the ideal woman shape in Western standards by looking at winners of beauty pageants, adult magazines, models, and famous actresses. Garner, Garfinkel, Schwartz, and Thompson (1980) reported that Playboy centerfolds and Miss American Pageant participants bust, waist, and hip measurements are now tubular in shape versus being curvaceous as they were 20 years ago. Miss America participants are also reported to have decreased in body size (Leug, Lam, and Sze, 2001, pg 39). Sixty-nine percent of the playboy centerfolds and sixty percent of Miss American participants are fifteen percent lighter in weight than they should be for their height and age. The waist to hip ratio is a sign of the ideal female body shape. It plays a major part in feminity beauty. For example, many R & B or Rap songs talk about a woman physical measurement. Even in the 70’s until the 21st century, a small waist and full hips is a depiction of feminity beauty. Songs like: “She’s a bad mama jamma,” by Carl Carlton, “She’s a brick house,” by The Commodores, “Halle Barry (she’s fine),” by Hurricane Chris, and “Tip drill,” by Nelly are just a few of the songs that represent how men view feminine beauty concerning the waist to hip ratio. The waist to hip ratio for healthy pre-menopause women is between 67 and 80. If a woman has a low waist to hip ratio, she is considered curvaceous and attractive. The larger a woman waist is, the less attractive her body shape is perceived to be. Research shows that Miss America winners and playboy centerfolds waist to hip ratio stays between .68 and .72 range (Leug, Lam, and Sze, 2001, pg 39).
Females in all walks of professions seem to be impacted by what society deems as the ideal female body shape. Age is not a discriminate factor when it comes to ideal female body shape. Teenagers, young, middle, and old adult women are all subject to this pressure of ideal body image. A study consisting of ideal and socially acceptable body size children (303), adolescents (427), young adults (261), and middle-age adults (326) show that all subject groups selected similar ideal body sizes and too thin and obese body sizes were rejected. The younger subjects rejected body size variations, whereas the adults were more willing to accept it (Rand and Wright, 1999, pg 90). Thin has been the suggestion for female adults and recently female children. Extremely thin female fashion models appear in catalogues for plus sized women, but in catalogues for large men, male fashion models are not extremely thin (Rand and Wright, 1999, pg 90). There have been research studies that examine if the standard for female thinness is more restrictive than male thinness. Results showed that subjects who ranged from children to middle aged adults selected a thinner female as ideal female body size. Young adults commonly prefer thinner females. Society pressures women even girls to be thinner in body size versus a man. The fact that women and girls body shape standard have changed to thinner, and men and boys have remained the same can be seen as discrimination. The physical and psychological turmoil women and girls have to go through to become or maintain the ideal body shape created by society (men) is not just. Men and boys have the luxury of gaining or losing a little weight, without the pressures of society or internally feel bad themselves (Rand & Wright, 2000, pg. 45).
In contrast to how most women are following society’s depiction of having the ideal female body shape, some women are rebelling against this. In a study of seven women body builders, each woman was questioned about their training, motivations for body building, and social pressures about being muscular or not. In our culture slim is considered to be the norm for feminity instead of muscular. It was interesting to know that the female body builders experienced pressure of the ideal female body builder from within the body building community. Society suggested thin and not too muscular, and the body building community suggested muscular with a traditional feminine appearance. The results of the study concluded that female body builders had to deal with the pressures of societies and the body building community ideal of a woman body shape (Grogan, Evans, Wright, and Hunter, 2004, pg 49). Self-control, occupational success, social skills, popularity, youth, and beauty have all been associated with women who are very thin. In the United States, Britain, Australia, and other continents of the world women desire to be thinner. Is this a global issue that all women share in common? It seems to be. Women and girls in the western culture undoubtedly pick thinner as the ideal than current size. As a very short muscular female, I have experienced a man telling me that I didn’t need to gain any more muscle, because I didn’t want to look manly. His opinion of what was feminine was a women being very slender with a slight athletic build. Little girls as young as eight have expressed their fear of becoming muscular or fat, which shows how society instills thinness as beauty in us as children. I have always struggled with my weight, but because of my genetic makeup I will never be waif thin and healthy. In many cultures, women are not supposed to have visibly large muscles (Grogan, Evans, Wright, and Hunter, 2004, pg 49). Famous women such as, Angela Bassett, Tina Turner, Madonna, Serena Williams, and Janet Jackson are just a few of the women in our society that are muscular, but are accepted as feminine and beautiful. Sandra Bartky, a feminist author believes that body building and muscularity are empowering and challenges society and cultural beliefs about muscularity and masculinity. Leena St Martin and Nicola Gavey are also feminist who believe women body builders and muscular women challenge the dominant ideologies that perceive women as physically weak. This is certainly a way to increase healthy positive body images for women and young girls globally. Some argue that this is just another ploy to physically and psychologically influence women to change their bodies to yet another ideal body shape. Some feminist authors believe that Western women desire to be thin because women believe that is what men want. From the pressure of the media, fashion industries, peers, and family to be slender, it’s amazing that some women choose to body build (Grogan, Evans, Wright, and Hunter, 2004, pg 50-53).
Research shows that white women are more subject to experience the pressure of being influence by the ideal thin body shape versus a black woman. Self-reports reveal that white women also chooses a thinner ideal body size than black women. White men influence white women choice to be thinner, because they fear being publicly ridiculed if the woman is larger than the ideal body size (Powell and Kahn, 1995, pg.191-192). As a black woman, my experience from the black men ideal women is the waist to hip ratio. The larger the woman’s buttock is the better. Unfortunately, the black woman has the pressure of her waist being extremely small. This ideal body shape expected from black men can be impossible to achieve. For example, entertainers like Beyonce, Kim Kardashin, and Jennifer Lopez are just some of the body shapes that most black men prefer. For the average black women to maintain an hour glass body shape, it can be impossible. Body measurements of 36-24-42 are the ball park ideal body shapes a black man pressures black women to obtain. Many studies reveal that eating disorders among white women stem from trying to achieve the ideal body shape (Powell and Kahn, 1995, pg.192).
Women of every race and culture have been affected by discrimination and inequality in some form or another. Unfortunately, we have allowed society, the media, and men determine what our body shape should be like. It seems that women are so preoccupied about what society or men want, so we ourselves have come to believe what they say is ideal for us. I did a small experiment with the guys in my Gender Inequality class. The male participants’ race consisted of one African American, one Hispanic, and one Caucasian man. I asked them to give me the ideal measurements of what women should look like. I found it interesting that the Caucasian and Hispanic male preferred bustier women. The Hispanic and African American male prefer women to have large buttocks. I think that regardless of how hard women try to become the ideal body shape, society, men, and even other females will come up with another ideal body shape. It seems like an underlying way that society and men use to try to keep women in a subordinate state. Negative psychological and social experiences because of weight-based discrimination are practiced against women all over the world. Women are discriminated against because of their body image even when it comes to getting hired. It sadness me to know that women all over the world, regardless of race share such an ugly truth; inequality and discrimination against our own body image . I believe that women are the epitome of beauty, no matter what her body shape is. From our breast, to our hips, lips, eyes, etc. I believe women are beautiful in all body shapes.

Reference
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