Programmable Logic Controllers:
Programming Methods and Applications by John R. Hackworth and Frederick D. Hackworth, Jr.

Table of Contents

Chapter 1 - Ladder Diagram Fundamentals
Chapter 2 - The Programmable Logic Controller
Chapter 3 - Fundamental PLC Programming
Chapter 4 - Advanced Programming Techniques
Chapter 5 - Mnemonic Programming Code
Chapter 6 - Wiring Techniques
Chapter 7 - Analog I/O
Chapter 8 - Discrete Position Sensors
Chapter 9 - Encoders, Transducers, and Advanced Sensors
Chapter 10 - Closed Loop and PID Control
Chapter 11 - Motor Controls
Chapter 12 - System Integrity and Safety

Preface
Most textbooks related to programmable controllers start with the basics of ladder logic, Boolean algebra, contacts, coils and all the other aspects of learning to program PLCs. However, once they get more deeply into the subject, they generally narrow the field of view to one particular manufacturer's unit (usually one of the more popular brands and models), and concentrate on programming that device with it's capabilities and peculiarities. This is worthwhile if the desire is to learn to program that unit. However, after finishing the PLC course, the student will most likely be employed in a position designing, programming, and maintaining systems using PLCs of another brand or model, or even more likely, many machines with many different brands and models of PLC. It seems to the authors that it would be more advantageous to approach the study of PLCs using a general language that provides a thorough knowledge of programming concepts that can be adapted to all controllers. This language would be based on a collection of different manufacturer types with generally the same programming technique and capability. Although it would be impossible to teach one programming language and technique that would be applicable to each and every programmable controller on the market, the student can be given a thorough insight into programming methods with this general approach which will allow him or her to easily adapt to any PLC encountered.
Therefore, the goal of this text is to help the student develop a good general working knowledge of programmable controllers with concentration on relay ladder logic techniques and how the PLC is connected to external components in an operating control system. In the course of this work, the student will be presented with real world programming problems that can be solved on any available programmable controller or
PLC simulator. Later chapters in this text relate to more advanced subjects that are more suitable for an advanced course in machine controls. The authors desire that this text not only be used to learn programmable logic controllers, but also that this text will become part of the student’s personal technical reference library.
Readers of this text should have a thorough understanding of fundamental ac and dc circuits, electronic devices (including thyristors), a knowledge of basic logic gates, flip flops, and Boolean algebra, and college algebra and trigonometry. Although a knowledge of calculus will enhance the understanding of PID controls, it is not required in order to learn how to properly tune a PID.

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Chapter 1 - Ladder Diagram Fundamentals

Chapter 1 - Ladder Diagram Fundamentals
1-1.

Objectives

Upon completion of this chapter, you will be able to
” identify the parts of an electrical machine control diagram including rungs, branches, rails, contacts, and loads.
” correctly design and draw a simple electrical machine control diagram.
” recognize the difference between an electronic diagram and an electrical machine diagram. ” recognize the diagramming symbols for common components such as switches, control transformers, relays, fuses, and time delay relays.
” understand the more common machine control terminology.
1-2.

Introduction

Machine control design is a unique area of engineering that requires the knowledge of certain specific and unique diagramming techniques called ladder diagramming.
Although there are similarities between control diagrams and electronic diagrams, many of the component symbols and layout formats are different. This chapter provides a study of the fundamentals of developing, drawing and understanding ladder diagrams. We will begin with a description of some of the fundamental components used in ladder diagrams.
The basic symbols will then be used in a study of boolean logic as applied to relay diagrams. More complicated circuits will then be discussed.
1-3.

Basic Components and Their Symbols

We shall begin with a study of the fundamental components used in electrical machine controls and their ladder diagram symbols. It is important to understand that the material covered in this chapter is by no means a comprehensive coverage of all types of machine control components. Instead, we will discuss only the most commonly used ones.
Some of the more exotic components will be covered in later chapters.
Control Transformers
For safety reasons, machine controls are low voltage components. Because the switches, lights and other components must be touched by operators and maintenance personnel, it is contrary to electrical code in the United States to apply a voltage higher than
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Chapter 1 - Ladder Diagram Fundamentals
120VAC to the terminals of any operator controls. For example, assume a maintenance person is changing a burned-out indicator lamp on a control panel and the lamp is powered by 480VAC. If the person were to touch any part of the metal bulb base while it is in contact with the socket, the shock could be lethal. However, if the bulb is powered by
120VAC or less, the resulting shock would likely be much less severe.
In order to make large powerful machines efficient and cost effective and reduce line current, most are powered by high voltages (240VAC, 480VAC, or more). This means the line voltage must be reduced to 120VAC or less for the controls. This is done using a control transformer. Figure 1-1 shows the electrical diagram symbol for a control transformer. The most obvious peculiarity here is that the symbol is rotated 90° with the primaries on top and secondary on the bottom. As will be seen later, this is done to make it easier to draw the remainder of the ladder diagram. Notice that the transformer has two primary windings. These are usually each rated at 240VAC. By connecting them in parallel, we obtain a 240VAC primary, and by connecting them in series, we have a
480VAC primary. The secondary windings are generally rated at 120VAC, 48VAC or
24VAC. By offering control transformers with dual primaries, transformer manufacturers can reduce the number of transformer types in their product line, make their transformers more versatile, and make them less expensive.

H1

H3

H2

X1

H4

X2

Figure 1-1 - Control Transformer
Fuses
Control circuits are always fuse protected. This prevents damage to the control transformer in the event of a short in the control circuitry. The Figure 1-2 electrical symbol for a fuse is shown in Figure 1-2. The fuse used in control
Fuse
circuits is generally a slo-blow fuse (i.e. it is generally immune to current transients which occur when power is switched on) and must be rated at a current that is less than or equal to the rated secondary current of the control transformer, and it must be connected in series with the transformer secondary. Most control transformers can be purchased with a fuse block (fuse holder) for the secondary fuse mounted on the transformer, as shown in Figure 1-3.

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Chapter 1 - Ladder Diagram Fundamentals

Figure 1-3 - Control Transformer with
Secondary Fuse Holder
(Allen Bradley)
Switches
There are two fundamental uses for switches. First, switches are used for operator input to send instructions to the control circuit. Second, switches may be installed on the moving parts of a machine to provide automatic feedback to the control system. There are many different types of switches, too many to cover in this text. However, with a basic understanding of switches, it is easy to understand most of the different types.
Pushbutton
The most common switch is the pushbutton. It is also the one that needs the least description because it is widely used in automotive and electronic equipment applications.
There are two types of pushbutton, the momentary and maintained. The momentary pushbutton switch is activated when the button is pressed, and deactivated when the button is released. The deactivation is done using an internal spring. The maintained pushbutton activates when pressed, but remains activated when it is released. Then to deactivate it, it must be pressed a second time. For this reason, this type of switch is sometimes called a push-push switch. The on/off switches on most desktop computers and laboratory oscilloscopes are maintained pushbuttons.

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Chapter 1 - Ladder Diagram Fundamentals
The contacts on switches can be of two types. These are normally open
(N/O) and normally closed (N/C).
Whenever a switch is in it’s deactivated position, the N/O contacts will be open Figure 1-4 - Momentary Pushbutton Switches
(non-conducting) and the N/C contacts will be closed (conducting). Figure 1-4 shows the schematic symbols for a normally open pushbutton (left) and a normally closed pushbutton (center). The symbol on the right of
Figure 1-4 is a single pushbutton with both N/O and N/C contacts. There is no internal electrical connection between different contact pairs on the same switch. Most industrial switches can have extra contacts “piggy backed” on the switch, so as many contacts as needed of either type can be added by the designer.
The schematic symbol for the maintained pushbutton is shown in Figure 1-5. Note that it is the symbol for the momentary pushbutton with a “see-saw” mechanism added to hold in the switch actuator until it is pressed a second time. As with the momentary switch, the maintained switch can have as many contacts of either type as desired.

Figure 1-5 Maintained Switch

Pushbutton Switch Actuators
The actuator of a pushbutton is the part that you depress to activate the switch.
These actuators come is several different styles as shown in Figure 1-6, each with a specific purpose.
The switch on the left in Figure 1-6 has a guarded or shrouded actuator. In this case the pushbutton is recessed 1/4"-1/2" inside the sleeve and can only be depressed by an object smaller than the sleeve (such as a finger). It provides protection against the button being accidentally depressed by the palm of the hand or other object and is therefore used in situations where pressing the switch causes something potentially dangerous to happen. Guarded pushbuttons are used in applications such as START,
RUN, CYCLE, JOG, or RESET operations. For example, the RESET pushbutton on your computer is likely a guarded pushbutton.
The switch shown in the center of Figure 1-6 has an actuator that is aligned to be even with the sleeve. It is called a flush pushbutton. It provides similar protection against accidental actuation as the guarded pushbutton; however, since it is not recessed, the level of protection is not to the extent of the guarded pushbutton. This type of switch actuator works better in applications where it is desired to back light the actuator (called a lighted pushbutton). 1-4

Chapter 1 - Ladder Diagram Fundamentals
The switch on the right is an extended pushbutton. Obviously, the actuator extends beyond the sleeve which makes the button easy to depress by finger, palm of the hand, or any object. It is intended for applications where it is desirable to make the switch as accessible as possible such as STOP, PAUSE, or BRAKES.

Figure 1-6 - Switch Actuators
The three types of switch actuators shown in Figure 1-6 are not generally used for applications that would be required in emergency situations nor for operations that occur hundreds of times per day. For both of these applications, a switch is needed that is the most accessible of all switches. These types are the mushroom head or palm head pushbutton (sometimes called palm switches, for short), and are illustrated in Figure 1-7.

Figure 1-7 - Mushroom Head Pushbuttons
Although these two applications are radically different, the switches look similar. The mushroom head switch shown on the left of Figure 1-7 is a momentary switch that may be used to cause a machine run one cycle of an operation. For safety reasons, they are usually used in pairs, separated by about 24", and wired so that they must both be pressed at the same time in order to cause the desired operation to commence. When arranged and wired such as this, we create what is called a 2-handed palming operation. By doing
1-5

Chapter 1 - Ladder Diagram Fundamentals so, we know that when the machine is cycled, the operator has both hands on the pushbuttons and not in the machine.
The switch on the right of Figure 1-7 is a detent pushbutton (i.e. when pressed in it remains in, and then to return it to its original position, it must be pulled out) and is called an Emergency Stop, or E-Stop switch. The mushroom head is always red and the switch is used to shutoff power to the controls of a machine when the switch is pressed in. In order to restart a machine, the E-Stop switch must be pulled to the out position to apply power to the controls before attempting to run the machine.
E-STOP
RUN
Mushroom head switches have special schematic symbols as shown in Figure 1-8. Notice that they are drawn as standard pushbutton switches but have a curved line on the top of the actuators to indicate Figure 1-8 - Mushroom Switches that the actuators have a mushroom head.

Selector Switches
STOP
RUN
A selector switch is also known as a rotary switch. An automobile ignition switch, and an oscilloscope’s vertical gain and horizontal timebase switches are examples of selector switches. Selector
Figure 1-9 - Selectors switches use the same symbol as a momentary pushbutton, except a lever is added to the top of the actuator, as shown in Figure 1-9. The switch on the left is open when the selector is turned to the left and closed when turned to the right. The switch on the right side has two sets of contacts. The top contacts are closed when the switch selector is turned to the left position and open when the selector is turned to the right. The bottom set of contacts work exactly opposite. There is no electrical connection between the top and bottom pairs of contacts. In most cases, we label the selector positions the same as the labeling on the panel where the switch is located. For the switch on the right in Figure 1-9, the control panel would be labeled with the STOP position to the left and the RUN position to the right.

Limit Switches
Limit switches are usually not operator accessible.
Instead they are activated by moving parts on the machine. They are usually mechanical switches, but can also be light activated (such as the automatic door Figure 1-10 - Limit Switches openers used by stores and supermarkets), or magnetically operated (such as the magnetic switches used on home security systems that sense when a window has been opened). An example of a mechanically operated limit switch is the switch on the
1-6

Chapter 1 - Ladder Diagram Fundamentals refrigerator door that turns on the light inside. They are sometimes called cam switches because many are operated by a camming action when a moving part passes by the switch. The symbols for both types of limit switches are shown in Figure 1-10. The N/O version is on the left and the N/C version is on the right. One of the many types of limit switch is pictured in Figure 1-11.

Figure 1-11 - Limit Switch
Indicator Lamps
All control panels include indicator lamps. They tell the operator when power is applied to the machine and indicate the present operating status of the machine. Indicators are drawn as a circle with “light rays” extending on the diagonals as shown in Figure 1-12.
Figure 1-12 Lamp
Although the light bulbs used in indicators are generally incandescent (white), they are usually covered with colored lenses. The colors are usually red, green, or amber, but other colors are also available. Red lamps are reserved for safety critical indicators (power is on, the machine is running, an access panel is open, or that a fault has occurred). Green usually indicates safe conditions (power to the motor is off, brakes are on, etc.). Amber indicates conditions that are important but not dangerous
(fluid getting low, machine paused, machine warming up, etc.). Other colors indicate information not critical to the safe operation of the machine (time for preventive maintenance, etc.). Sometimes it is important to attract the operator’s attention with a lamp. In these cases, we usually flash the lamp continuously on and off.
Relays
Early electrical control systems were composed of mainly relays and switches.
Switches are familiar devices, but relays may not be so familiar. Therefore, before
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Chapter 1 - Ladder Diagram Fundamentals continuing our discussion of machine control ladder diagramming, a brief discussion of relay fundamentals may be beneficial. A simplified drawing of a relay with one contact set is shown in Figure 1-13. Note that this is a cutaway (cross section) view of the relay.
NORMALLY CLOSED
(N/C) CONTACT

CONDUCTOR

INSULATOR
NORMALLY CLOSED
(N/C) CONTACT
INSULATOR

MOVABLE CONTACT

NORMALLY OPEN
(N/O) CONTACT

NORMALLY OPEN
(N/O) CONTACT

INSULATOR

PLUNGER

CORE
SPRING

COIL

Figure 1-13 - Relay or Contactor
A relay, or contactor, is an electromagnetic device composed of a frame (or core) with an electromagnet coil and contacts (some movable and some fixed). The movable contacts (and conductor that connects them) are mounted via an insulator to a plunger which moves within a bobbin. A coil of copper wire is wound on the bobbin to create an electromagnet. A spring holds the plunger up and away from the electromagnet. When the electromagnet is energized by passing an electric current through the coil, the magnetic field pulls the plunger into the core, which pulls the movable contacts downward. Two fixed pairs of contacts are mounted to the relay frame on electrical insulators so that when the movable contacts are not being pulled toward the core (the coil is de-energized) they physically touch the upper fixed pair of contacts and, when being pulled toward the coil, touches the lower pair of fixed contacts. There can be several sets of contacts mounted to the relay frame. The contacts energize and de-energize as a result of applying power to the relay coil (connections to the relay coil are not shown). Referring to Figure 1-13, when the coil is de-energized, the movable contacts are connected to the upper fixed contact pair. These fixed contacts are referred to as the normally closed contacts because they are bridged together by the movable contacts and conductor whenever the relay is in its "power off" state. Likewise, the movable contacts are not connected to the lower fixed contact pair when the relay coil is de-energized. These fixed contacts are referred to as the normally open contacts. Contacts are named with the relay in the deenergized state. Normally open contacts are said to be off when the coil is de-energized and on when the coil is energized. Normally closed contacts are on when the coil is deenergized and off when the coil is energized. Those that are familiar with digital logic tend to think of N/O contacts as non-inverting contacts, and N/C contacts as inverting contacts.

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Chapter 1 - Ladder Diagram Fundamentals
It is important to remember that many of the schematic symbols used in electrical diagrams are different than the symbols for the same types of components in electronic diagrams. Figure 1-14 shows the three most common relay symbols used in electrical machine diagrams. These three symbols are a normally open contact, normally closed contact and coil. Notice that the normally open contact on the left could easily be misconstrued by an electronic designer to be a capacitor. That is why it is important when working with electrical machines to mentally “shift gears” to think in terms of electrical symbols and not electronic symbols.
CR1

CR101

CR1

Figure 1-14 - Relay Symbols
Notice that the normally closed and normally open contacts of Figure 1-14 each have lines extending from both sides of the symbol. These are the connection lines which, on a real relay, would be the connection points for wires. The reader is invited to refer back to Figure 1-13 and identify the relationship between the normally open and normally closed contacts on the physical relay and their corresponding symbols in Figure 1-14.
The coil symbol shown in Figure 1-14 represents the coil of the relay we have been discussing. The coil, like the contacts, has two connection lines extending from either side.
These represent the physical wire connections to the coil on the actual relay. Notice that the coil and contacts in the figure each have a reference designator label above the symbol. This label identifies the contact or coil within the ladder diagram. Coil CR1 is the coil of relay CR1. When coil CR1 is energized, all the normally open CR1 contacts will be closed and all the normally closed CR1 contacts will be open. Likewise, if coil CR1 is deenergized, all the normally open CR1 contacts will be open and all the normally closed CR1 contacts will be closed. Most coils and contacts we will use will be labeled as CR (CR is the abbreviation for “control relay”). A contact labeled CR indicates that it is associated with a relay coil. Each relay will have a specific number associated with it. The range of numbers used will depend upon the number of relays in the system.
Figure 1-15 shows the same relay symbols as in Figure 1-14, however, they have not been drawn graphically. Instead they are drawn using standard ASCII printer characters (hyphens, vertical bars, forward slashes, and parentheses). This is a common method used when the ladder diagram is generated by a computer on an older printer, or when it is desired to rapidly print the ladder diagram (ASCII characters print very quickly).
This printing method is usually limited to ladder diagrams of PLC programs as we will see later. Machine electrical diagrams are rarely drawn using this method.

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Chapter 1 - Ladder Diagram Fundamentals
CR1
----| |----

CR101
----|/|----

CR1
----(
)----

Figure 1-15 - ASCII Relay Symbols
Relays can range in size from extremely small reed relays in 14 pin DIP integrated circuit-style packages capable of switching a few tenths of an ampere at less than 100 volts to large contactors the size of a room capable of switching thousands of amperes at thousands of volts. However, for electrical machine diagrams, the schematic symbol for a relay is the same regardless of the relay’s size.
Time Delay Relays
It is possible to construct a relay with a built-in time delay device that causes the relay to either switch on after a time delay, or to switch off after a time delay. These types of relays are called time delay relays, or TDR’s. The schematic symbols for a TDR coil and contacts are the same as for a conventional relay, except that the coil symbol has the letters “TDR” or “TR” written inside, or next to the coil symbol. The relay itself looks similar to any other relay except that it has a control knob on it that allows the user to set the amount of time delay. There are two basic types of time delay relay. They are the delay-on timer, sometimes called a TON (pronounced Tee-On), and the delay off timer, sometimes called a TOF (pronounced Tee-Off). It is important to understand the difference between these relays in order to specify and apply them correctly.
Delay-On Timer (TON) Relay
When an on-timer is installed in a circuit, the user adjusts the control on the relay for the desired time delay. This time setting is called the preset. Figure 1-16 shows a timing diagram of a delay-on time delay relay. Notice on the top waveform that we are simply turning on power to the relay’s coil and some undetermined time later, turning it off
(the amount of time that the coil is energized makes no difference to the operation of the relay). When the coil is energized, the internal timer in the relay begins running (this can be either a motor driven mechanical timer or an electronic timer). When the time value contained in the timer reaches the preset value, the relay energizes. When this happens, all normally open (N/O) contacts on the relay close and all normally closed (N/C) contacts on the relay open. Notice also that when power is removed from the relay coil, the contacts immediately return to their de-energized state, the timer is reset, and the relay is ready to begin timing again the next time power is applied. If power is applied to the coil and then switched off before the preset time is reached, the relay contacts never activate.

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Chapter 1 - Ladder Diagram Fundamentals
TDR
Coil
Power

On
Delay

TDR
N/O
Contact
TDR
N/C
Contact

Figure 1-16 - Delay-On Timer Relay

Delay-on relays are useful for delaying turn-on events. For example, when the motor is started on a machine, a TON time delay relay can be used to disable all the other controls for a few seconds until the motor has had time to achieve running speed.
Delay-Off Timer (TOF) Relay
Figure 1-17 shows a timing diagram for a delay off timer. In this case, at the instant power is applied to the relay coil, the contacts activate - that is, the N/O contacts close, and the N/C contacts open. The time delay occurs when the relay is switched off. After power is removed from the relay coil, the contacts stay activated until the relay times-out. If the relay coil is re-energized before the relay times-out, the timer will reset, and the relay will remain energized until power is removed, at which time it will again begin the delay-off cycle. TDR
Coil
Power

Off
Delay

TDR
N/O
Contact
TDR
N/C
Contact

Figure 1-17 - Delay-Off Timer Relay
Delay-off time delay relays are excellent for applications requiring time to be
“stretched”. As an example, it can be used to operate a fan that continues to cool the machine even after the machine has been stopped.
1-4.

Fundamentals of Ladder Diagrams
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Chapter 1 - Ladder Diagram Fundamentals
Basic Diagram Framework
All electrical machine diagrams are drawn using a standard format. This format is called the ladder diagram. Beginning with the control transformer, we add a protective fuse on the left side. As mentioned earlier, in many cases the fuse is part of the transformer itself. From the transformer/fuse combination, horizontal lines are drawn to both sides and then drawn vertically down the page as shown in Figure 1-18. These vertical lines are called power rails or simply rails or uprights. The voltage difference between the two rails is equal to the transformer secondary voltage, so any component connected between the two rails will be powered.
H1

H3

H2

H4

T1

F1
2

X1

X2

1

Figure 1-18 - Basic Control Circuit
Notice that the right side of the control transformer secondary is grounded to the frame of the machine (earth ground). The reason for this is that, without this ground, should the transformer short internally from primary to secondary, it could apply potentially lethal line voltages to the controls. With the ground, an internal transformer short will cause a fuse to blow or circuit breaker to trip farther “upstream” on the line voltage side of the transformer which will shutdown power to the controls.
Wiring
The wires are numbered. In our diagram, the left rail is wire number 2 and the right rail is wire number 1. When the system is constructed, the actual wires used to connect the components will have a label on each end (called a wire marker), as shown in
Figure 1-19, indicating the same wire number. This makes it easier to build, troubleshoot, and modify the circuitry. In addition, by using wire markers, all the wires will be identified, making it unnecessary to use more than one color wire to wire the system, which reduces the cost to construct the machine. Generally, control circuits are wired with all black, red,
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Chapter 1 - Ladder Diagram Fundamentals or white wire (do not use green - it is reserved for safety ground wiring). Notice that in
Figure 1-18 the wire connecting T1 to F1 is not numbered. This is because in our design we will be using a transformer with the fuse block included. Therefore, this will be a permanent metal strap on the transformer and will not be a wire.
The wire generally used within the controls circuitry is AWG14 or AWG16 stranded copper, type MTW or THHN.
MTW is an abbreviation for “machine tool wire” and THHN indicates thermoplastic heat-resistant nylon-coated. MTW has a single PVC insulation jacket and is used in applications where the wire will not be exposed to gas or oil.
It is less expensive, more flexible, and easier to route, bundle, and pull through conduits. THHN is used in areas where the wire may be exposed to gas or oil (such as Figure 1-19 - Wire Marker hydraulically operated machines). It has a transparent, oilresistant nylon coating on the outside of the insulation. The drawback to THHN is that it is more expensive, is more difficult to route around corners, and because of its larger diameter, reduces the maximum number of conductors that can be pulled into tight places
(such as inside conduits). Since most control components use low currents, AWG14 or
AWG16 wire is much larger than is needed. However, it is generally accepted for panel and controls wiring because the larger wire is tough, more flexible, easier to install, and can better withstand the constant vibration created by heavy machinery.
Reference Designators
For all electrical diagrams, every component is given a reference designator. This is a label assigned to the component so that it can be easily located. The reference designator for each component appears on the schematic diagram, the mechanical layout diagram, the parts list, and sometimes is even stamped on the actual component itself.
The reference designator consists of an alphabetical prefix followed by a number. The prefix identifies what kind of part it is (control relay, transformer, limit switch, etc.), and the number indicates which particular part it is. Some of the most commonly used reference designator prefixes are as follows:
T
CR
R
C
LS
PB
S
SS

transformer control relay resistor capacitor limit switch pushbutton switch selector switch
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Chapter 1 - Ladder Diagram Fundamentals
TDR or TR
M
L
F
CB
OL

time delay relay motor, or motor relay indicator lamp or line phase fuse circuit breaker overload switch or overload contact

The number of the reference designator is assigned by the designer beginning with the number 1. For example, control relays are numbered CR1, CR2, etc, fuses are F1, F2, etc. and so on. It is generally a courtesy of the designer to state on the electrical drawing the
“Last Used Reference Designators”. This is done so that anyone who is assigned the job of later modifying the machine will know where to “pick up” in the numbering scheme for any added components. For example, if the drawing stated “Last Used Reference
Designators: CR15, T2, F3", then in a modification which adds a control relay, the added relay would be assigned the next sequential reference designator, CR16. This eliminates the possibility of skipping a number or having duplicate numbers. Also, if components are deleted as part of a modification, it is a courtesy to add a line of text to the drawing stating
“Unused Reference Designators:” This prevents someone who is reading the drawing from wasting time searching for a component that no longer exists.
Some automation equipment and machine tool manufacturers use a reversed component numbering scheme that starts with the number and ends with the alphabetical designator. For example, instead of CR15, T2, and F3, the reference designators 15CR,
2T, and 3F are used.
The components in our diagram example shown in Figure 1-18 are numbered with reference designators. The transformer is T1 and the fuse is F1. Other components will be assigned reference designators as they are added to the diagram.
Boolean Logic and Relay Logic
Since the relays in a machine perform some type of control operation, it can be said that they perform a logical function. As with all logical functions, these control circuits must consist of the fundamental AND, OR, and INVERT logical operations. Relay coils, N/C contacts, and N/O contacts can be wired to perform
LAMP1
SWITCH1
SWITCH2
these same fundamental logical functions. By properly wiring relay contacts and coils together, we can create any logical function desired.
AND
Generally when introducing a class to logical operations, an instructor uses the analogy of a series Figure 1-20 - AND Lamp Circuit
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Chapter 1 - Ladder Diagram Fundamentals connection of two switches, a lamp and a battery to illustrate the AND function. Relay logic allows this function to be represented this way. Figure 1-20 shows the actual wiring connection for two switches, a lamp and a battery in an AND configuration. The lamp,
LAMP1, will illuminate only when SWITCH1 AND SWITCH2 are ON. The Boolean expression for this is

Lamp1 = ( Switch1) • ( Switch2)

(1-1)

If we were to build this function using digital logic chips, the logic diagram for Equation 1-1 and Figure 1-20 would appears as shown in Figure 1-21. However, keep in mind that we will not be doing this for machine controls.
SWITCH1

LAMP1

SWITCH2

Figure 1-21 - AND Circuit
To represent the circuit of Figure 1-21 in ladder logic form in an electrical machine diagram, we would utilize the power from the rails and simply add the two switches (we have assumed these are to be pushbutton switches) and lamp in series between the rails as shown in Figure 1-22. This added circuit forms what is called a rung. The reason for the name “rung” is that as we add more circuitry to the diagram, it will begin to resemble a ladder with two uprights and many rungs.
H1

H3

H2

H4

T1

F1
X1

2

SWITCH1

X2

SWITCH2
3

PB1

1

LAMP1
4

PB2
L1

Figure 1-22 - Ladder Diagram

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Chapter 1 - Ladder Diagram Fundamentals
There are a few important details that have been added along with the switches and lamp. Note that the added wires have been assigned the wire numbers 3 and 4 and the added components have been assigned the reference designators PB1, PB2, and L1. Also note that the switches are on the left and the lamp is on the right. This is a standard convention when designing and drawing machine circuits. The controlling devices (in this case the switches) are always positioned on the left side of the rung, and the controlled devices (in this case the lamp) are always positioned on the right side of the rung. This wiring scheme is also done for safety reasons. Assume for example that we put the lamp on the left side and the switches on the right. Should there develop a short to ground in the wire from the lamp to the switches, the lamp would light without either of the switches being pressed. For a lamp to inadvertently light is not a serious problem, but assume that instead of a lamp, we had the coil of a relay that started the machine. This would mean that a short circuit would start the machine without any warning. By properly wiring the controlled device (called the load) on the right side, a short in the circuit will cause the fuse to blow when the rung is activated, thus de-energizing the machine controls and shutting down the machine. OR

SWITCH1
LAMP2

The same approach may be taken for the OR function. The circuit shown in Figure 1-23 illustrates two switches wired as an OR function controlling a lamp,
LAMP2. As can be seen from the circuit, the lamp will illuminate if SWITCH 1 OR SWITCH 2 is closed; that is, depressing either of the switches will cause the lamp
LAMP2 to illuminate. The Boolean expression for this circuit is

SWITCH2

Figure 1-23 - OR Lamp Circuit

Lamp2 = ( Switch1) + ( Switch2)

(1-2)

For those more familiar with logic diagramming, the OR gate representation of the OR circuit in Figure 1-23 and Equation 1-2 is shown in Figure 1-24. Again, when drawing machine controls diagrams, we do not use this schematic representation.
SWITCH1

LAMP2

SWITCH2

Figure 1-24 - OR Circuit
1-16

Chapter 1 - Ladder Diagram Fundamentals
We can now add this circuit to our ladder diagram as another rung as shown in
Figure 1-25. Note that since the switches SWITCH1 and SWITCH2 are the same ones used in the top rung, they will have the same names and the same reference designators when drawn in rung 2. This means that each of these two switches have two N/O contacts on the switch assembly. Some designers prefer to place dashed lines between the two
PB1 switches and another between the two PB2 switches to clarify that they are operated by the same switch actuator (in this case the actuator is a pushbutton)
When we have two or more components in parallel in a rung, each parallel path is called a branch. In our diagram in Figure 1-25, rung two has two branches, one with PB1 and the other with PB2. It is possible to have branches on the load side of the rung also.
For example, we could place another lamp in parallel with LAMP2 thereby creating a branch on the load side.
H1

H3

H2

H4

T1

F1
X1

2

SWITCH1

X2

SWITCH2
3

PB1

1

LAMP1
4

PB2
L1
LAMP2

SWITCH1
5
PB1
SWITCH2

L2

PB2

Figure 1-25 - Add Rung 2
It is important to note that in our ladder diagram, it is possible to exchange rungs 1 and 2 without changing the way the lamps operate. This is one advantage of using ladder diagramming. The rungs can be arranged in any order without changing the way the machine operates. It allows the designer to compartmentalize and organize the control circuitry so that it is easier to understand and troubleshoot. However, keep in mind that, later in this text, when we begin PLC ladder programming, the rearranging of rungs is not
1-17

Chapter 1 - Ladder Diagram Fundamentals recommended. In a PLC, the ordering of the rungs is critical and rearranging the order could change the way the PLC program executes.
AND OR and OR AND
Let us now complicate the circuitry somewhat. Suppose that we add two more switches to the previous circuits and configure the original switch, battery and light circuit as in Figure 1-26.
SWITCH1

SWITCH2

PB1
SWITCH3

PB2
SWITCH4

PB3

PB4

LAMP3

L3

Figure 1-26 - AND-OR Lamp Circuit

Notice that two switches have been added, SWITCH 3 and SWITCH 4. For this system to operate properly, the LAMP needs to light if SWITCH 1 AND SWITCH 2 are both on, OR if SWITCH 3 AND SWITCH 4 are both on. This circuit is called an AND-OR circuit. The
Boolean expression for this is illustrated in Equation 1-3.

Lamp3 = ( Switch1 • Switch2) + ( Switch3 • Switch4)

(1-3)

The opposite of this circuit, called the OR-AND circuit is shown in Figure 1-27. For this circuit, LAMP4 will be on whenever SWITCH1 OR SWITCH2, AND SWITCH3 OR
SWITCH4 are on. For circuits that are logically complicated, it sometimes helps to list all the possible combinations of inputs (switches) that will energize a rung. For this OR-AND circuit, LAMP4 will be lit when the following combinations of switches are on:
SWITCH1 and SWITCH3
SWITCH1 and SWITCH4
SWITCH2 and SWITCH3
SWITCH2 and SWITCH4
1-18

Chapter 1 - Ladder Diagram Fundamentals
SWITCH1 and SWITCH2 and SWITCH3
SWITCH1 and SWITCH2 and SWITCH4
SWITCH1 and SWITCH3 and SWITCH4
SWITCH2 and SWITCH3 and SWITCH4
SWITCH1 and SWITCH2 and SWITCH3 and SWITCH4
SWITCH1

SWITCH3

PB1
SWITCH2

PB3
SWITCH4

PB2

PB4

LAMP4

L4

Figure 1-27 - OR-AND Lamp Circuit
The Boolean expression for the OR-AND circuit is shown in Equation 1-4

Lamp3 = ( Switch1 + Switch2) • ( Switch3 + Switch4)

(1-4)

These two rungs will now be added to our ladder diagram and are shown in
Figure 1-28. Look closely at the circuit and follow the possible power paths to energize
LAMP3 and LAMP4. You should see two possible paths for LAMP3:
SWITCH1 AND SWITCH2
SWITCH3 AND SWITCH4
Either of these paths will allow LAMP3 to energize. For LAMP4, you should see four possible paths:
SWITCH1 AND SWITCH3
SWITCH1 AND SWITCH4
SWITCH2 AND SWITCH3
SWITCH2 AND SWITCH4.
Any one of these four paths will energize LAMP4.

1-19

Chapter 1 - Ladder Diagram Fundamentals
H1

H3

H2

H4

T1

F1
X1

2

SWITCH1

X2

1

SWITCH2
3

PB1

LAMP1
4

PB2
L1
LAMP2

SWITCH1
5
PB1
SWITCH2

L2

PB2
LAMP3

SWITCH2

SWITCH1
6

8

PB1

PB2

SWITCH3

SWITCH4

L3

7
PB3

PB4

SWITCH1

SWITCH3
9

LAMP4
10

PB1

PB3

SWITCH2

SWITCH4

PB2

PB4

L4

Figure 1-28 - Add Rungs 3 & 4
Now that we have completed a fundamental study of ladder diagram, we should begin investigating some standard ladder logic circuits that are commonly used on electric machinery. Keep in mind that these circuits are also used in programming programmable logic controllers.

1-20

Chapter 1 - Ladder Diagram Fundamentals
Ground Test
Earlier, we drew a ladder diagram of some switch circuits which included the control transformer. We connected the right side of the transformer to ground (the frame of the machine). For safety reasons, it is necessary to occasionally test this ground to be sure that is it still connected because loss of the ground circuit will not affect the performance of the machine and will therefore go unnoticed. This test is done using a ground test circuit, and is shown in Figure 1-29.
H1

H3

H2

H4

T1

F1
X1

2

GROUND TEST

X2

1

GROUND
TEST
PASS

S1
L1

Figure 1-29 - Ground Test Circuit

Notice that this rung is unusual in that it does not connect to the right rail. In this case, the right side fo the lamp L1 has a wire with a lug that is fastened to the frame of the machine under a screw. When the pushbutton S1 is pressed, the lamp L1 lights if there is a path for current to flow through the frame of the machine back to the X2 side of the control transformer. If the lamp fails to light, it is likely that the transformer is no longer grounded. The machine should not be operated until an electrician checks and repairs the problem. In some cases, the lamp L1 is located inside the pushbutton switch S1 (this is called an illuminated switch).
The Latch (with Sealing/Latching Contacts)
Occasionally, it is necessary to have a relay “latch” on so that if the device that activated the relay is switched off, the relay remains on. This is particularly useful for making a momentary pushbutton switch perform as if it were a maintained switch.
Consider, for example, the pushbuttons that switch a machine on and off. This can be done with momentary pushbuttons if we include a relay in the circuit that is wired as a latch
1-21

Chapter 1 - Ladder Diagram Fundamentals as shown in the ladder diagram segment Figure 1-30 (the transformer and fuse are not shown for clarity). Follow in the diagram as we discuss how this circuit operates.
First, when power is applied to the rails, CR1 is initially de-energized and the N/O
CR1 contact in parallel with switch S1 is open also. Since we are assuming S1 has not yet been pressed, there is no path for current to flow through the rung and it will be off. Next, we press the START switch S1. This provides a path for current flow through S1, S2 and the coil of CR1, which energizes CR1. As soon as CR1 energizes, the N/O CR1 contact in parallel with S1 closes (since the CR1 contact is operated by the CR1 coil). When the relay contact closes, we no longer need switch S1 to maintain a path for current flow through the rung. It is provided by the N/O CR1 contact and N/C pushbutton S2. At this point, we can release S1 and the relay CR1 will remain energized. The N/O CR1 contact
“seals” or “latches” the circuit on, and the contact is therefore called a sealing contact or latching contact.
The circuit is de-energized by pressing the STOP switch S2. This breaks the flow of current through the rung, de-energizes the CR1 coil, and opens the CR1 contact in parallel with S1. When S2 is released, there will still be no current flow through the rung because both S1 and the CR1 N/O contact are open.
START
S1

STOP

RUN
CR1

S2

RUN

CR1

Figure 1-30 - Latch Circuit
The latch circuit has one other feature that cannot be obtained by using a maintained switch. Should power fail while the machine is on, the latch rung will, of course, deenergize. However, when power is restored, the machine will not automatically restart. It must be manually restarted by pressing S1. This is a safety feature that is required on all heavy machines.
2-Handed Anti-Tie Down, Anti-Repeat
Many machines used in manufacturing are designed to go through a repeated fixed cycle. An example of this is a metal cutter that slices sheets of metal when actuated by an operator. By code, all cyclic machines must have 2-handed RUN actuation, and antirepeat and anti-tie down features. Each of these is explained below.
1-22

Chapter 1 - Ladder Diagram Fundamentals
2-Handed RUN Actuation
This means that the machine can only be cycled by an operator pressing two switches simultaneously that are separated by a distance such that both switches cannot be pressed by one hand. This assures that both of the operator’s hands will be on the switches and not in the machine when it is cycling. This is simply two palm switches in series operating a RUN relay CR1, as shown in Figure 1-31.
LEFT
START

S1

RIGHT
START

RUN
CR1

S2

Figure 1-31 - 2-Handed Operation
Anti-Tie Down and Anti-Repeat
The machine must not have the capability to be cycled by tying or taping down one of the two RUN switches and using the second to operate the machine. In some cases, machine operators have done this so that they have one hand available to guide raw material into the machine while it is cycling, an extremely hazardous practice. Anti-tie down and anti-repeat go hand-in-hand by forcing both RUN switches to be cycled off and then on each time to make the machine perform one cycle. This means that both RUN switches must be pressed at the same time within a small time window, usually ½ second. If one switch is pressed and then the other is pressed after the time window has expired, the machine will not cycle.
Since both switches must be pressed within a time window, we will need a time delay relay for this feature, specifically a delay-on, or TON, relay. Consider the circuit shown in Figure 1-32. Notice that we have taken the 2-handed circuit that we constructed in Figure 1-31 and added additional circuitry to perform the anti-tie down. Follow along in the circuit as we analyze how it operates.
The two palm switches S1 and S2 now each have two N/O contacts. In the first rung they are connected in series and in the second rung, they are connected in parallel. This means that in order to energize CR1, both S1 and S2 must be pressed, and in order to energize TDR1, either S1 or S2 must be pressed. When power is applied to the rails, assuming neither S1 nor S2 are pressed, both relays CR1 and TDR1 will be de-energized.
Now we press either of the two palm switches. Since we did not yet press both switches, relay CR1 will not energize. However, in the second rung, since one of the two switches
1-23

Chapter 1 - Ladder Diagram Fundamentals is pressed, we have a current path through the pressed switch to the coil of TDR1. The time delay relay TDR1 begins to count time. As long as we hold either switch depressed,
TDR1 will time out in ½ second. When this happens, the N/C TDR1 contact in the first rung will open, and the rung will be disabled from energizing, which, in turn, prevents the machine from running. At this point, the only way the first rung can be enabled is to first reset the time delay relay by releasing both S1 and S2.
If S1 and S2 are both pressed within ½ second of each other, the TDR1 N/C contact in the first rung will have not yet opened and CR1 will be energized. When this happens, the N/O CR1 contact in the first rung seals across the TDR1 contact so that when the time delay relay TDR1 times out, the first rung will not be disabled. As long as we hold both palm switches on, CR1 will remain on and TDR1 will remain timed out.
If we momentarily release either of the palm switches, CR1 de-energizes. When this happens, we loose the sealing contact across the N/C TDR1 contact in the first rung. If we re-press the palm switch, CR1 will not re-energize because TDR1 is still timed out and is holding its N/C contact open in the first rung. The only way to get CR1 re-energized is to reset TDR1 by releasing both S1 and S2 and then pressing both again.
LEFT
START

RIGHT
START
TDR1
S2

S1

RUN
CR1

CR1
TDR1, 0.5s

S1
ANTI-TIE DOWN
S2

Figure 1-32 - 2-Handed Operation with Anti-Tie Down and
Anti-Repeat

Single Cycle
When actuated, the machine must perform only one cycle and then stop, even if the operator is still depressing the RUN switches. This prevents surprises and possible injury for the operator if the machine should inadvertently go through a second cycle. Therefore,
1-24

Chapter 1 - Ladder Diagram Fundamentals circuitry is usually needed to assure that once the machine has completed one cycle of operation, it stops and waits for the RUN switch(es) to be released and then pressed again.
In order for the circuitry to be able to determine where the machine is in its cycle, a cam-operated limit switch (like the one previously illustrated in Figure 1-11) must be installed on the machine as shown in Figure 1-33. The cam is mounted on the mechanical shaft of the machine which rotates one revolution for each cycle of the machine. There is a spring inside the switch that pushes the actuator button, lever arm, and roller to the right and keeps the roller constantly pressed against the cam surface. The mechanism is adjusted so that when the cam rotates, the roller of the switch assembly rolls out of the detent in the cam which causes the lever arm to press the switch’s actuator button. The actuator remains pressed until the cam makes one complete revolution and the detent aligns with the roller.

ROLLER
ACTUATOR BUTTON

CAM

TERMINALS
C
N/O
N/C

LEVER ARM
PIVOT

SWITCH
Figure 1-33 - Cam-operated Limit Switch
The cam is aligned on the shaft so that when the machine is at the stopping point in its cycle (i.e., between cycles), the switch roller is in the cam detent. The switch has three terminals, C (common, or wiper), N/O (normally open), and N/C (normally closed).
When the machine is between cycles, the N/O terminal is open and the N/C is connected to C. While the machine is cycling, the N/O is connected to C and the N/C is open.
The circuit to implement the single-cycle feature is shown in Figure 1-34. Note that we will be using both the N/O and N/C contacts of the cam-operated limit switch LS1. Also note that, for the time being, the START switch S1 is shown as a single pushbutton switch.
Later we will add the 2-handed anti-tie down, and anti-repeat circuitry to make a complete cycle control system. Follow along on the ladder diagram as we analyze how this circuit works. 1-25

Chapter 1 - Ladder Diagram Fundamentals
RUN
CR1

START
S1
CR1

RUN LATCH

CR3

CR2

CYCLE
LS1A
CR1

CYCLE LOCK

CR3

CYCLE

CR3

LS1B

Figure 1-34 - Single-Cycle Circuit
When the rails are energized, we will assume that the machine is mechanically positioned so that the cam switch is sitting in the cam detent (i.e., the N/O contact LS1A is open and the N/C contact LS1B is closed). At this point, CR1 in the first rung will be off
(because the START switch has not yet been pressed), CR2 in the second rung is off
(because CR1 is off and LS1A is open), and CR3 in the third rung is on because LS1B is closed and the N/C CR1 contact is closed. As soon as CR3 energizes, the CR3 N/O contact in the third rung closes. At this point, the circuit is powered and the machine is stopped, but ready to cycle.
Now we press the START switch S1. This energizes CR1. In the second rung, the
N/O CR1 contact closes. Since the N/O CR3 contact is already closed (because CR3 is on), CR2 energizes. This applies power to the machine and causes the cycle to begin.
As soon as the cam switch rides out of the cam detent, LS1A closes and LS1B opens. When this happens, LS1A in the second rung seals CR2 on. In the third rung,
LS1B opens which de-energizes CR3. Since CR2 is still on, the machine continues in its cycle. The operator may or may not release the START switch during the cycle. However, in either case it will not affect the operation of the machine. We will analyze both cases:
1. If the operator does release the START switch before the machine finishes it’s cycle, CR1 will de-energize. However, in the second rung it has no immediate effect
1-26

Chapter 1 - Ladder Diagram Fundamentals because the contacts CR1 and CR3 are sealed by LS1A. Also, in the third rung, it has no immediate affect because LS1B is open which disables the entire rung. Eventually, the machine finishes it’s cycle and the cam switch rides into the cam detent. This causes LS1A to open and LS1B to close. In the third rung, since the N/C CR1 contact is closed (CR1 is off because S1 is released), closing LS1B switches on CR3. In the second rung, when
LS1A opens CR2 de-energizes (because the N/O CR1 contact is open). This stops the machine and prevents it from beginning another cycle. The circuit is now back in it’s original state and ready for another cycle.
2. If the operator does not release the START switch before the machine finishes it’s cycle, CR1 remains energized. Eventually, the machine finishes it’s cycle and the cam switch rides into the cam detent. This causes LS1A to open and LS1B to close. In the third rung, the closing of LS1B has no effect because N/C CR1 is open. In rung 2, the opening of LS1A causes CR2 to de-energize, stopping the machine. Then, when the operator releases S1, CR1 turns off, and CR3 turns on. The circuit is now back in it’s original state and ready for another cycle.
There are some speed limitations to this circuit. First, if the machine cycles so quickly that the cam switch “flies” over the detent in the cam, the machine will cycle endlessly. One possible fix for this problem is to increase the width of the detent in the cam. However, if this fails to solve the problem, a non-mechanical switch mechanism must be used. Normally, the mechanical switch is replaced by an optical interrupter switch and the cam is replaced with a slotted disk. This will be covered in a later chapter. Secondly, if the machine has high inertia, it is possible that it may “coast” through the stop position.
In this case, some type of electrically actuated braking system must be added that will quickly stop the machine when the brakes are applied. For our circuit, the brakes could be actuated by a N/C contact on CR2.
Combined Circuit
Figure 1-35 shows a single cycle circuit with the START switch replaced by the two rungs that perform the 2-handed, anti-tie down, and anti-repeat functions. In this circuit, when both palm switches are pressed within 0.5 second of each other, the machine will cycle once and stop, even if both palm switches remain pressed. Afterward, both palm switches must be released and pressed again in order to make the machine cycle again.

1-27

Chapter 1 - Ladder Diagram Fundamentals
LEFT
START

RIGHT
START
TDR1
S2

S1

RUN
CR1

CR1
TDR1, 0.5s

S1
ANTI-TIE DOWN
S2

CR1

RUN LATCH

CR3

CR2

CYCLE
LS1A
CR1

CYCLE LOCK

CR3

CYCLE

CR3

LS1B

Figure 1-35 - 2-Handed, Anti-Tie Down, Anti-Repeat, SingleCycle Circuit

1-28

Chapter 1 - Ladder Diagram Fundamentals
1-5.

Machine Control Terminology

There are some words that are used in machine control systems that have special meanings. For safety purposes, the use of these words is explicit and can have no other meaning. They are generally used when naming control circuits, labeling switch positions on control panels, and describing modes of operation of the machine. A list of some of the more important of these terms appears below.
ON

This is a machine state in which power is applied to the machine and to the machine control circuits. The machine is ready to RUN. This is also sometimes call the STANDBY state.

OFF

Electrically, the opposite of ON. Power is removed from the machine and the machine control circuits. In this condition, pressing any switches on the control panel should have no effect.

RUN

A state in which the machine is cycling or performing the task for which it is designed. This state can only be started by pressing RUN switches. Don’t confuse this state with the ON state. It is possible for a machine to be ON but not RUNNING.

STOP

The state in which the machine is ON but not RUNNING. If the machine is
RUNNING, pressing the STOP switch will cause RUNNING to cease.

JOG

A condition in which the machine can be “nudged” a small amount to allow for the accurate positioning of raw material while the operator is holding the material. The machine controls must be designed so that the machine cannot automatically go from the JOG condition to the
RUN condition while the operator is holding the raw material.

INCH

Same as JOG.

CYCLE

A mode of operation in which the machine RUNs for one complete operation and then automatically STOPs. Holding down the CYCLE button will not cause the machine to RUN more than one cycle. In order to have the machine execute another CYCLE, the CYCLE button must be released and pressed again. This mode is sometimes called SINGLE CYCLE.

1-29

Chapter 1 - Ladder Diagram Fundamentals
2 HAND OPERATION
A control design method in which a machine will not RUN or CYCLE unless two separate buttons are simultaneously pressed. This is used on machines where it is dangerous to hand-feed the machine while it is cycling. The two buttons are positioned apart so that they both cannot be pressed by one arm (e.g., a hand and elbow). Both buttons must be released and pressed again to have the machine start another cycle.
1-6.

Summary

Although this chapter gives the reader a basic understanding of conventional machine controls, it is not intended to be a comprehensive coverage of the subject.
Expertise in the area of machine controls can best be achieved by actually practicing the trade under the guidance of experienced machine controls designers. However, an understanding of basic machine controls is the foundation needed to learn the programming language of Programmable Logic Controllers. As we will see in subsequent chapters, the programming language for PLCs is a graphic language that looks very much like machine control electrical diagrams.

1-30

Chapter 1 - Ladder Diagram Fundamentals
Chapter 1 Review Questions
1.

What is the purpose of the control transformer in machine control systems?

2.

Whys are fuses necessary in controls circuits even though the power mains may already have circuit breakers?

3.

What is the purpose of the shrouded pushbutton actuator?

4.

Draw the electrical symbol for a two-position selector switch with one contact.
The switch is named “ICE” and the selector positions are “CUBES” on the left and “CRUSHED” on the right. The contact is to be closed when the switch is in the “CUBES” position.

5.

Draw an electrical diagram rung showing a N/O contact CR5 in series with a N/C contact CR11, operating a lamp L3.

6.

A delay-on (TON) relay has a preset of 5.0 seconds. If the coil terminals are energized for 8 seconds, how long will its contacts be actuated.

7.

If a delay-on (TON) relay with a preset of 5.0 seconds is energized for 3 seconds, explain how it reacts.

8.

If a delay-off (TOF) relay with a preset of 5.0 seconds is energized for
1 second, explain how the relay reacts.

9.

Draw a ladder diagram rung similar to Figure 1-30 that will cause a lamp L5 to illuminate when relay contacts CR1 is ON, CR2 is OFF, and CR3 is OFF.

10.

Draw a ladder diagram rung similar to Figure 1-30 that will cause a lamp L7 to be OFF when relay CR2 is ON or when CR3 is OFF. L7 should be ON at all other times. (Hint: Make a table showing all the possible states of CR2 and CR3 and mark the combinations that cause L7 to be OFF. All those not marked must be the ones when L7 is ON.)

11.

Draw a ladder diagram rung similar to Figure 1-30 that will cause relay CR10 to energize when either CR4 and CR5 are ON, or when CR4 is OFF and CR6 is ON. Then add a second rung that will cause lamp L3 to illuminate 4 seconds after CR10 energizes.

1-31

Chapter 2 - The Programmable Logic Controller

Chapter 2 - The Programmable Logic Controller
2-1.

Objectives

Upon completion of this chapter you will know
” the history of the programmable logic controller.
” why the first PLCs were developed and why they were better than the existing control methods.
” the difference between the open frame, shoebox, and modular PLC configurations, and the advantages and disadvantages of each.
” the components that make up a typical PLC.
” how programs are stored in a PLC.
” the equipment used to program a PLC.
” the way that a PLC inputs data, outputs data, and executes its program.
” the purpose of the PLC update.
” the order in which a PLC executes a ladder program.
” how to calculate the scan rate of a PLC.

2-2.

Introduction

This chapter will introduce the programmable logic controller (PLC) with a brief discussion of it's history and development, and a study of how the PLC executes a program. A physical description of the various configurations of programmable logic controllers, the functions associated with the different components, will follow. The chapter will end with a discussion of the unique way that a programmable logic controller obtains input data, process it, and produces output data, including a short introduction to ladder logic. It should be noted that in usage, a programmable logic controller is generally referred to as a “PLC” or “programmable controller”. Although the term “programmable controller” is generally accepted, it is not abbreviated “PC” because the abbreviation “PC” is usually used in reference to a personal computer. As we will see in this chapter, a PLC is by no means a personal computer.

2-1

Chapter 2 - The Programmable Logic Controller
2-3.

A Brief History

Early machines were controlled by mechanical means using cams, gears, levers and other basic mechanical devices. As the complexity grew, so did the need for a more sophisticated control system. This system contained wired relay and switch control elements. These elements were wired as required to provide the control logic necessary for the particular type of machine operation. This was acceptable for a machine that never needed to be changed or modified, but as manufacturing techniques improved and plant changeover to new products became more desirable and necessary, a more versatile means of controlling this equipment had to be developed. Hardwired relay and switch logic was cumbersome and time consuming to modify. Wiring had to be removed and replaced to provide for the new control scheme required. This modification was difficult and time consuming to design and install and any small "bug" in the design could be a major problem to correct since that also required rewiring of the system. A new means to modify control circuitry was needed. The development and testing ground for this new means was the U.S. auto industry. The time period was the late 1960's and early 1970's and the result was the programmable logic controller, or PLC. Automotive plants were confronted with a change in manufacturing techniques every time a model changed and, in some cases, for changes on the same model if improvements had to be made during the model year.
The PLC provided an easy way to reprogram the wiring rather than actually rewiring the control system.
The PLC that was developed during this time was not very easy to program. The language was cumbersome to write and required highly trained programmers. These early devices were merely relay replacements and could do very little else. The PLC has at first gradually, and in recent years rapidly developed into a sophisticated and highly versatile control system component. Units today are capable of performing complex math functions including numerical integration and differentiation and operate at the fast microprocessor speeds now available. Older PLCs were capable of only handling discrete inputs and outputs (that is, on-off type signals), while today's systems can accept and generate analog voltages and currents as well as a wide range of voltage levels and pulsed signals. PLCs are also designed to be rugged. Unlike their personal computer cousin, they can typically withstand vibration, shock, elevated temperatures, and electrical noise to which manufacturing equipment is exposed.
As more manufacturers become involved in PLC production and development, and
PLC capabilities expand, the programming language is also expanding. This is necessary to allow the programming of these advanced capabilities. Also, manufacturers tend to develop their own versions of ladder logic language (the language used to program PLCs).
This complicates learning to program PLC's in general since one language cannot be learned that is applicable to all types. However, as with other computer languages, once the basics of PLC operation and programming in ladder logic are learned, adapting to the various manufacturers’ devices is not a complicated process. Most system designers
2-2

Chapter 2 - The Programmable Logic Controller eventually settle on one particular manufacturer that produces a PLC that is personally comfortable to program and has the capabilities suited to his or her area of applications.
2-4.

PLC Configurations

Programmable controllers (the shortened name used for programmable logic controllers) are much like personal computers in that the user can be overwhelmed by the vast array of options and configurations available. Also, like personal computers, the best teacher of which one to select is experience. As one gains experience with the various options and configurations available, it becomes less confusing to be able to select the unit that will best perform in a particular application.
Basic PLCs are available on a single printed circuit board as shown in Figure 2-1.
They are sometimes called single board PLCs or open frame PLCs. These are totally self contained (with the exception of a power supply) and, when installed in a system, they are simply mounted inside a controls cabinet on threaded standoffs. Screw terminals on the printed circuit board allow for the connection of the input, output, and power supply wires. These units are generally not expandable, meaning that extra inputs, outputs, and memory cannot be added to the basic unit. However, some of the more sophisticated models can be linked by cable to expansion boards that can provide extra I/O. Therefore, with few exceptions, when using this type of PLC, the system designer must take care to specify a unit that has enough inputs, outputs, and programming capability to handle both the present need of the system and any future modifications that may be required. Single board PLCs are very inexpensive (some less than $100), easy to program, small, and consume little power, but, generally speaking, they do not have a large number of inputs and outputs, and have a somewhat limited instruction set. They are best suited to small, relatively simple control applications.

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Chapter 2 - The Programmable Logic Controller

Figure 2-1 - Open Frame PLC
(Triangle Research Inc., Pte. Ltd.)

PLCs are also available housed in a single case (sometimes referred to as a shoe box) with all input and output, power and control connection points located on the single unit, as shown in Figure 2-2. These are generally chosen according to available program memory and required number and voltage of inputs and outputs to suit the application.
These systems generally have an expansion port (an interconnection socket) which will allow the addition of specialized units such as high speed counters and analog input and output units or additional discrete inputs or outputs. These expansion units are either plugged directly into the main case or connected to it with ribbon cable or other suitable cable. 2-4

Chapter 2 - The Programmable Logic Controller

Figure 2-2 - Shoebox-Style PLCs
(IDEC Corp.)

More sophisticated units, with a wider array of options, are modularized. An example of a modularized PLC is shown in Figure 2-3.

Figure 2-3 - Modularized PLC
(Omron Electronics)
2-5

Chapter 2 - The Programmable Logic Controller
The typical system components for a modularized PLC are:
1. Processor.
The processor (sometimes call a CPU), as in the self contained units, is generally specified according to memory required for the program to be implemented. In the modularized versions, capability can also be a factor.
This includes features such as higher math functions, PID control loops and optional programming commands.
The processor consists of the microprocessor, system memory, serial communication ports for printer, PLC
LAN link and external programming device and, in some cases, the system power supply to power the processor and I/O modules.
2. Mounting rack.
This is usually a metal framework with a printed circuit board backplane which provides means for mounting the PLC input/output (I/O) modules and processor. Mounting racks are specified according to the number of modules required to implement the system. The mounting rack provides data and power connections to the processor and modules via the backplane. For CPUs that do not contain a power supply, the rack also holds the modular power supply. There are systems in which the processor is mounted separately and connected by cable to the rack. The mounting rack can be available to mount directly to a panel or can be installed in a standard
19" wide equipment cabinet. Mounting racks are cascadable so several may be interconnected to allow a system to accommodate a large number of I/O modules. 3. Input and output modules.
Input and output (I/O) modules are specified according to the input and output signals associated with the particular application. These modules fall into the categories of discrete, analog, high speed counter or register types. Discrete I/O modules are generally capable of handling 8 or 16 and, in some cases 32, on-off type inputs or outputs per module. Modules are specified as input or output but generally not both although some manufacturers now offer modules that can be configured with both input and
2-6

Chapter 2 - The Programmable Logic Controller output points in the same unit. The module can be specified as AC only, DC only or AC/DC along with the voltage values for which it is designed.
Analog input and output modules are available and are specified according to the desired resolution and voltage or current range. As with discrete modules, these are generally input or output; however some manufacturers provide analog input and output in the same module. Analog modules are also available which can directly accept thermocouple inputs for temperature measurement and monitoring by the PLC.
Pulsed inputs to the PLC can be accepted using a high speed counter module. This module can be capable of measuring the frequency of an input signal from a tachometer or other frequency generating device. These modules can also count the incoming pulses if desired. Generally, both frequency and count are available from the same module at the same time if both are required in the application.
Register input and output modules transfer 8 or 16 bit words of information to and from the PLC. These words are generally numbers (BCD or Binary) which are generated from thumbwheel switches or encoder systems for input or data to be output to a display device by the PLC.
Other types of modules may be available depending upon the manufacturer of the PLC and it's capabilities. These include specialized communication modules to allow for the transfer of information from one controller to another. One new development is an I/O Module which allows the serial transfer of information to remote I/O units that can be as far as
12,000 feet away.
4. Power supply.
The power supply specified depends upon the manufacturer's PLC being utilized in the application. As stated above, in some cases a power supply capable of delivering all required power for the system is furnished as part of the processor module. If the power supply is a separate module, it must be capable of delivering a current greater than the sum of all the currents needed by the other modules. For systems with the power supply inside the CPU module, there may be some modules in the system which require excessive power not available from the processor either because of voltage or current requirements that can only be achieved through the addition of a second power source. This is generally true if analog or
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Chapter 2 - The Programmable Logic Controller external communication modules are present since these require ± DC supplies which, in the case of analog modules, must be well regulated.
5. Programming unit.
The programming unit allows the engineer or technician to enter and edit the program to be executed. In it's simplest form it can be a hand held device with a keypad for program entry and a display device (LED or LCD) for viewing program steps or functions, as shown in Figure 2-4. More advanced systems employ a separate personal computer which allows the programmer to write, view, edit and download the program to the PLC. This is accomplished with proprietary software available from the PLC manufacturer. This software also allows the programmer or engineer to monitor the PLC as it is running the program. With this monitoring system, such things as internal coils, registers, timers and other items not visible externally can be monitored to determine proper operation. Also, internal register data can be altered if required to fine tune program operation. This can be advantageous when debugging the program. Communication with the programmable controller with this system is via a cable connected to a special programming port on the controller. Connection to the personal computer can be through a serial port or from a dedicated card installed in the computer.

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Chapter 2 - The Programmable Logic Controller

Figure 2-4 - Programmer Connected to a Shoebox PLC
(IDEC Corporation)

2-5.

System Block Diagram

A Programmable Controller is a specialized computer. Since it is a computer, it has all the basic component parts that any other computer has; a Central Processing Unit,
Memory, Input Interfacing and Output Interfacing. A typical programmable controller block diagram is shown in Figure 2-5.

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Chapter 2 - The Programmable Logic Controller

Figure 2-5 - Programmable Controller Block Diagram
The Central Processing Unit (CPU) is the control portion of the PLC. It interprets the program commands retrieved from memory and acts on those commands. In present day
PLC's this unit is a microprocessor based system. The CPU is housed in the processor module of modularized systems.
Memory in the system is generally of two types; ROM and RAM. The ROM memory contains the program information that allows the CPU to interpret and act on the Ladder
Logic program stored in the RAM memory. RAM memory is generally kept alive with an on-board battery so that ladder programming is not lost when the system power is removed. This battery can be a standard dry cell or rechargeable nickel-cadmium type.
Newer PLC units are now available with Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only
Memory (EEPROM) which does not require a battery. Memory is also housed in the processor module in modular systems.
Input units can be any of several different types depending on input signals expected as described above. The input section can accept discrete or analog signals of various voltage and current levels. Present day controllers offer discrete signal inputs of both AC and DC voltages from TTL to 250 VDC and from 5 to 250 VAC. Analog input units can accept input levels such as ±10 VDC, ±5 VDC and 4-20 ma. current loop values. Discrete input units present each input to the CPU as a single 1 or 0 while analog input units contain analog to digital conversion circuitry and present the input voltage to the CPU as binary number normalized to the maximum count available from the unit. The number of bits representing the input voltage or current depends upon the resolution of the unit. This number generally contains a defined number of magnitude bits and a sign bit. Register input units present the word input to the CPU as it is received (Binary or BCD).
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Chapter 2 - The Programmable Logic Controller
Output units operate much the same as the input units with the exception that the unit is either sinking (supplying a ground) or sourcing (providing a voltage) discrete voltages or sourcing analog voltage or current. These output signals are presented as directed by the CPU. The output circuit of discrete units can be transistors for TTL and higher DC voltage or Triacs for AC voltage outputs. For higher current applications and situations where a physical contact closure is required, mechanical relay contacts are available.
These higher currents, however, are generally limited to about 2-3 amperes. The analog output units have internal circuitry which performs the digital to analog conversion and generates the variable voltage or current output.
2-6.

... - Update - Solve the Ladder - Update - ...

When power is applied to a programmable logic controller, the PLC’s operation consists of two steps: (1) update inputs and outputs and (2) solve the ladder. This may seem like a very simplistic approach to something that has to be more complicated but there truly are only these two steps. If these two steps are thoroughly understood, writing and modifying programs and getting the most from the device is much easier to accomplish. With this understanding, the things that can be undertaken are then up to the imagination of the programmer.
You will notice that the “update - solve the ladder” sequence begins after startup.
The actual startup sequence includes some operations transparent to the user or programmer that occur before actual PLC operation on the user program begins. During this startup there may be extensive diagnostic checks performed by the processor on things like memory, I/O devices, communication with other devices (if present) and program integrity. In sophisticated modular systems, the processor is able to identify the various module types, their location in the system and address. This type of system analysis and testing generally occurs during startup before actual program execution.
2-7.

Update

The first thing the PLC does when it begins to function is update I/O. This means that all discrete input states are recorded from the input unit and all discrete states to be output are transferred to the output unit. Register data generally has specific addresses associated with it for both input and output data referred to as input and output registers.
These registers are available to the input and output modules requiring them and are updated with the discrete data. Since this is input/output updating, it is referred to as I/O
Update. The updating of discrete input and output information is accomplished with the use of input and output image registers set aside in the PLC memory. Each discrete input point has associated with it one bit of an input image register. Likewise, each discrete output point has one bit of an output image register associated with it. When I/O updating
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Chapter 2 - The Programmable Logic Controller occurs, each input point that is ON at that time will cause a 1 to be set at the bit address associated with that particular input. If the input is off, a 0 will be set into the bit address.
Memory in today's PLC's is generally configured in 16 bit words. This means that one word of memory can store the states of 16 discrete input points. Therefore, there may be a number of words of memory set aside as the input and output image registers. At I/O update, the status of the input image register is set according to the state of all discrete inputs and the status of the output image register is transferred to the output unit. This transfer of information typically only occurs at I/O update. It may be forced to occur at other times in PLC's which have an Immediate I/O Update command. This command will force the PLC to update the I/O at other times although this would be a special case.
One major item of concern about the first output update is the initial state of outputs.
This is a concern because their may be outputs that if initially turned on could create a safety hazard, particularly in a system which is controlling heavy mechanical devices capable of causing bodily harm to operators. In some systems, all outputs may need to be initially set to their off state to insure the safety of the system. However, there may be systems that require outputs to initially be set up in a specific way, some on and some off.
This could take the form of a predetermined setup or could be a requirement that the outputs remain in the state immediately before power-down. More recent systems have provisions for both setup options and even a combination of the two. This is a prime concern of the engineer and programmer and must be defined as the system is being developed to insure the safety of personnel that operate and maintain the equipment.
Safety as related to system and program development will be discussed in a later chapter.
2-8.

Solve the Ladder

After the I/O update has been accomplished, the PLC begins executing the commands programmed into it. These commands are typically referred to as the ladder diagram. The ladder diagram is basically a representation of the program steps using relay contacts and coils. The ladder is drawn with contacts to the left side of the sheet and coils to the right. This is a holdover from the time when control systems were relay based. This type of diagram was used for the electrical schematic of those systems. A sample ladder diagram is shown in Figure 2-6.

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Chapter 2 - The Programmable Logic Controller

Figure 2-6 - Sample Ladder Diagram

The symbols used in Figure 2-6 may be foreign at this point, so a short explanation will be necessary. The symbols at the right of the ladder diagram labeled CR1, CR2, CR3 and CR4 and are circular in shape are the software coils of the relays. The symbols at the left which look like capacitors, some with diagonal lines through them, are the contacts associated with the coils. The symbols that look like capacitors without the diagonal lines through them are normally open contacts. These are analogous to a switch that is normally off. When the switch is turned on, the contact closes. The contact symbols at the left that look like capacitors with diagonal lines through them are normally closed contacts. A normally closed contact is equivalent to a switch that is normally turned on. It will turn off when the switch is actuated.
As can be seen in Figure 2-6, contact and coil position is as described above. Also, one can see the reason for the term ladder diagram if the rungs of a stepladder are visualized. In fact, each complete line of the diagram is referred to as one rung of logic.
The actual interpretation of the diagram will also be discussed later although some explanation is required here. The contact configuration on the left side of each rung can be visualized as switches and the coils on the right as lights. If the switches are turned on and off in the proper configuration, the light to the right will illuminate. The PLC executes this program from left to right and top to bottom, in that order. It first looks at the switch
(contact) configuration to determine if current can be passed to the light (coil). The data for this decision comes from the output and input image registers. If current can be
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Chapter 2 - The Programmable Logic Controller passed, the light (coil) will then be turned on. If not, the light (coil) will be turned off. This is recorded in the output image register. Once the PLC has looked at the left side of the rung it ignores the left side of the rung until the next time it solves that particular rung.
Once the light (coil) has been either turned on or off it will remain in that state until the next time the PLC solves that particular rung. After solving a rung, the PLC moves on to solve the next rung in the same manner and so forth until the entire ladder has been executed and solved. One rule that is different from general electrical operation is the direction of current flow in the rung. In a ladder logic, rung current can only flow from left to right and up and down; never from right to left.
As an example, in the ladder shown in Figure 2-7, coil CR1 will energize if any of the following conditions exist:

Figure 2-7 - Illustration of allowed current flow in ladder rung
1.

CR7 is off, CR6 is on.

2.

CR7 is off, CR2 is on, CR5 is on.

3.

CR7 is off, CR2 is on, CR3 is on.

4.

CR1 is on, CR4 is on, CR3 is on.

5.

CR1 is on, CR4 is on, CR5 is on.

You will notice that the current flow in the circuit in each of the cases listed above is from left to right and up and down. CR1 will not energize in the case listed below:
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Chapter 2 - The Programmable Logic Controller
CR1 is on, CR4 is on, CR2 is on, CR6 is on, CR5 is off, CR3 is off, CR7 is on.
This is because current would have to flow from right to left through the CR2 contact. This is not allowed in ladder logic even though current could flow in this direction if we were to build it with real relays. Remember, we are working in the software world not the hardware world. To review, after the I/O update, the PLC moves to the first rung of ladder logic. It solves the contact configuration to determine if the coil is to be energized or de-energized.
It then energizes or de-energizes the coil. After this is accomplished, it moves to the left side of the next rung and repeats the procedure. This continues until all rungs have been solved. When this procedure is complete with all rungs solved and all coils in the ladder set up according to the solution of each rung, the PLC proceeds to the next step of it's sequence, the I/O update.
At I/O update, the states of all coils which are designated as outputs are transferred from the output image register to the output unit and the states of all inputs are transferred to the input image register. Note that any input changes that occur during the solution of the ladder are ignored because they are only recorded at I/O update time. The state of each coil is recorded to the output image register as each rung is solved. However, these states are not transferred to the output unit until I/O update time.

Figure 2-8 - Scan Cycle
This procedure of I/O update and solving the ladder diagram and I/O update is referred to as scanning and is represented in Figure 2-8. The period between one I/O update and the next is referred to as one Scan. The amount of time it takes the PLC to get
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Chapter 2 - The Programmable Logic Controller from one I/O update to the next is referred to as Scan Time. Scan time is typically measured in milliseconds and is related to the speed of the CPU and the length of the ladder diagram that has to be solved. The slower the processor or the longer the ladder diagram, the longer the scan time of the system. The speed at which a PLC scans memory is referred to as Scan Rate. Scan rate units are usually listed in msec/K of memory being utilized for the program. As an example, if a particular PLC has a rated scan rate of
8 msec/K and the program occupies 6K of memory, it will take the PLC 48 msec to complete one scan of the program.
2-9.

Summary

Before a study of PLC programming can begin, it is important to gain a fundamental understanding of the various types of PLCs available, the advantages and disadvantages of each, and the way in which a PLC executes a program. The open frame, shoebox, and modular PLCs are each best suited to specific types of applications based on the environmental conditions, number of inputs and outputs, ease of expansion, and method of entering and monitoring the program. Additionally, programming requires a prior knowledge of the manner in which a PLC receives input information, executes a program, and sends output information. With this information, we are now prepared to begin a study of PLC programming techniques.

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Chapter 2 - The Programmable Logic Controller
Chapter 2 Review Questions
1.

How were early machines controlled before PLC's were developed?

2.

When were the first PLC's developed?

3.

What is a shoe box PLC?

4.

List four types of I/O modules?

5.

List five devices that would be typical inputs to a PLC. List five devices that a PLC might control.

6.

What types of memory might a PLC contain?

7.

Which type or types of memory would store the program to be executed by the PLC?

8.

What is the purpose of the programming unit?.

9.

What type of control system did the PLC replace? Why was the PLC better?

10.

What industry was primarily responsible for PLC development?

11.

What are the two steps the PLC must perform during operation?

12.

Describe I/O Update.

13.

What is the Output Image Register?

14.

Describe the procedure for solving a rung of logic.

15.

What are the allowed direction of current flow in a ladder logic rung?

16.

Define scan rate.

17.

If a PLC program is 7.5K long and the scan rate of the machine is 7.5 msec/K, what will the length of time between I/O updates be?

18.

Define scan time.

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Chapter 2 - The Programmable Logic Controller
19.

At what time is data transferred to and from the outside world into a PLC system? 20.

What common devices may be used to understand the operation of coils and contacts in ladder logic?

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Chapter 3 - Fundamental PLC Programming

Chapter 3 - Fundamental PLC Programming
3-1.

Objectives

Upon completion of this chapter, you will know
” how to convert a simple electrical ladder diagram to a PLC program.
” the difference between physical components and program components.
” why using a PLC saves on the number of physical components.
” how to construct disagreement and majority circuits.
” how to construct special purpose logic in a PLC program, such as the oscillator, gated oscillator, sealing contact, and the always-on and always-off contacts.
3-2.

Introduction

When writing programs for PLCs, it is beneficial to have a background in ladder diagramming for machine controls. This is basically the material that was covered in
Chapter 1 of this text. The reason for this is that at a fundamental level, ladder logic programs for PLCs are very similar to electrical ladder diagrams. This is no coincidence.
The engineers that developed the PLC programming language were sensitive to the fact that most engineers, technicians and electricians who work with electrical machines on a day-to-day basis will be familiar with this method of representing control logic. This would allow someone new to PLCs, but familiar with control diagrams, to be able to adapt very quickly to the programming language. It is likely that PLC programming language is one of the easiest programming languages to learn.
In this chapter, we will take the foundation knowledge learned in Chapter 1 and use it to build an understanding of PLC programming. The programming method used in this chapter will be the graphical method, which uses schematic symbols for relay coils and contacts. In a later chapter we will discuss a second method of programming PLCs which is the mnemonic language method.
3-3.

Physical Components vs. Program Components

When learning PLC programming, one of the most difficult concepts to grasp is the difference between physical components and program components. We will be connecting physical components (switches, lights, relays, etc.) to the external terminals on a PLC. Then when we program the PLC, any physical components connected to the PLC will be represented in the program as program components. A programming component
3-1

Chapter 3 - Fundamental PLC Programming will not have the same reference designator as the physical component, but can have the same name. As an example, consider a N/O pushbutton switch S1 named START. If we connect this to input 001 of a PLC, then when we program the PLC, the START switch will become a N/O relay contact with reference designator IN001 and the name START. As another example, of we connect a RUN lamp L1 to output 003 on the PLC, then in the program, the lamp will be represented by a relay coil with reference designator OUT003 and name RUN (or, if desired, “RUN LAMP”).
As a programming example, consider the simple AND circuit shown in Figure 3-1 consisting of two momentary pushbuttons in series operating a lamp. Although it would be very uneconomical to implement a circuit this simple using a PLC, for this example we will do so.
H1

H3

H2

H4

T1

F1
X1

2

SWITCH1

X2

SWITCH2

LAMP1

3
PB1

1

4
PB2
L1

Figure 3-1 - AND Ladder Diagram
When we convert a circuit to run on a PLC, we first remove the components from the original circuit and wire them to the PLC as shown in Figure 3-2. One major difference in this circuit is that the two switches are no longer wired in series. Instead, each one is wired to a separate input on the PLC. As we will see later, the two switches will be connected in series in the PLC program. By providing each switch with a separate input to the PLC, we gain the maximum amount of flexibility. In other words, by connecting them to the PLC in this fashion, we can “wire” them in software any way we wish.
The two 120V control voltage sources are actually the same source (i.e., the control transformer secondary voltage). They are shown separately in this figure to make it easier to see how the inputs and output are connected to the PLC, and how each is powered.

3-2

Chapter 3 - Fundamental PLC Programming
SWITCH1

PLC
IN1

OUT1

IN2

L1

OUT3

IN4

LAMP1

OUT2

IN3

PB1

OUT4

SWITCH2
PB2

120V
CONTROL
VOLTAGE

120V
CONTROL
VOLTAGE
COM

COM

Figure 3-2 - PLC Wiring Diagram for implementation of Figure 3-1
Once we know how the external components are wired to the PLC, we can then write our program. In this case we need to connect the two switches in series. However, once the signals are inside the PLC, they are assigned new reference designators which are determined by the respective terminal on the PLC. Since SWITCH1 is connected to
IN1, it will be called IN1 in our program. Likewise, SWITCH2 will become IN2 in our program. Also, since LAMP1 is connected to OUT1 on the PLC, it will be called relay
OUT1 in our program. Our program to control LAMP1 is shown in Figure 3-3.
| IN1
IN2
OUT1
1---| |-------| |---------------------------------------------------------(OUT)|
|
|

Figure 3-3 - AND PLC Program
The appearance of the PLC program may look a bit unusual. This is because this ladder rung was drawn by a computer using ASCII characters instead of graphic characters.
Notice that the rails are drawn with vertical line characters, the conductors are hyphens, and the coil of OUT1 is made of two parentheses. Also, notice that the right rail is all but missing. Many programs used to write and edit PLC ladder programs leave out the rails.
This particular program (TRiLOGI by TRi International Pte. Ltd.) Leaves out the right rail, but puts in the left one with a rung number next to each rung.

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Chapter 3 - Fundamental PLC Programming
When the program shown in Figure 3-3 is run, the PLC first updates the input image register by storing the values of the inputs on terminals IN1 and IN2 (it stores a one if an input is on, and a zero if it is off). Then it solves the ladder diagram according to the way it is drawn and based on the contents of the input image register. For our program, if both
IN1 and IN2 are on, it turns on OUT1 in the output image register (careful, it does NOT turn on the output terminal yet!). Then, when it is completed solving the entire program, it performs another update. This update transfers the contents of the output image register
(the most recent results of solving the ladder program) to the output terminals. This turns on terminal OUT1 which turns on the lamp LAMP1. At the same time that it transfers the contents of the output image register to the output terminals, it also transfers the logical values on the input terminals to the input image register. Now it is ready to solve the ladder again. For an operation this simple, this is a lot of trouble and expense. However, as we add to our program, we will begin to see how a PLC can economize not only on wiring, but on the complexity (and cost) of external components.
Next, we will add another lamp that switches on when either SWITCH1 or SWITCH2 are on. If we were to add this circuit to our electrical diagram in Figure 3-1, we would have the circuit shown in Figure 3-4
H1

H3

H2

H4

T1

F1
X1

2

SWITCH1

X2

SWITCH2

LAMP1

3
PB1

1

4
PB2
L1
LAMP2

SWITCH1
5
PB1
SWITCH2

L2

PB2

Figure 3-4 - OR Circuit

3-4

Chapter 3 - Fundamental PLC Programming
Notice that to add this circuit to our existing circuit, we had to add additional contacts to the switches PB1 and PB2. Obviously, this raises the cost of the switches. However, when doing this on a PLC, it is much easier and less costly.
The PLC wiring diagram to implement both the AND and OR circuits is shown in
Figure 3-5. Notice here that the only change we’ve made to the circuit is to add LAMP2 to the PLC output OUT2. Since the SWTICH1 and SWITCH2 signals are already available inside the PLC via inputs IN1 and IN2, it is not necessary to bring them into the PLC again.
This is because of one unique and very economical feature of PLC programming. Once an input signal is brought into the PLC for use by the program, you may use as many contacts of the input as you wish, and the contacts may be of either N/O or N/C polarity. This reduces the cost because, even though our program will require more than one contact of IN1 and IN2, each of the actual switches that generate these inputs, PB1 and PB2, only need to have a single N/O contact.

SWITCH1

PLC
IN1

OUT1

IN2

OUT2

IN3

LAMP1

L1

LAMP2

L2

OUT3

IN4

PB1

OUT4

SWITCH2
PB2

120V
CONTROL
VOLTAGE

120V
CONTROL
VOLTAGE
COM

COM

Figure 3-5 - PLC Wiring Diagram to Add
SWITCH2 and LAMP2

Now that we have the inputs and outputs connected, we can write the program. We do this by simply adding to the program the additional rung that we need to perform the OR operation. This is shown in Figure 3-6. Keep in mind that other than the additional lamp and the time it takes to add the additional program, this additional OR feature costs nothing. 3-5

Chapter 3 - Fundamental PLC Programming
|
IN1
IN2
OUT1
1---| |-------| |---------------------------------------------------------(OUT)|
|
|
|
|
IN1
OUT2
2---| |-------------------------------------------------------------------(OUT)|
|
IN2
|
|---| |---+
|
|

Figure 3-6 - PLC Program with Added OR Rung
Next, we will add AND-OR and OR-AND functions to out PLC. For this, we will need two more switches, SWITCH3 and SWITCH4, and two more lamps, LAMP3 and LAMP4.
Figure 3-7 shows the addition of these switches and lamps.
SWITCH1
PB1

PLC
IN1

OUT1

IN2

OUT2

IN3

OUT3

IN4

OUT4

LAMP1

L1

LAMP2

L2

LAMP3

L3

LAMP4

L4

SWITCH2
PB2
SWITCH3
PB3
SWITCH4
PB4

120V
CONTROL
VOLTAGE

120V
CONTROL
VOLTAGE
COM

COM

Figure 3-7 - PLC Wiring Diagram Adding
Switches PB3 and PB4 and Lamps L3 & L4.
Once the connection scheme for these components is known, we can add the additional programming required to implement the AND-OR and OR-AND functions. This is shown in Figure 3-8.

3-6

Chapter 3 - Fundamental PLC Programming
|
IN1
IN2
OUT1
1---| |-------| |---------------------------------------------------------(OUT)|
|
|
|
|
IN1
OUT2
2---| |-------------------------------------------------------------------(OUT)|
|
IN2
|
|---| |---+
|
|
|
|
IN1
IN2
OUT3
3---| |-------| |---------------------------------------------------------(OUT)|
|
IN3
IN4
|
|---| |-------| |---+
|
|
|
|
IN1
IN3
OUT4
4---| |-------| |---------------------------------------------------------(OUT)|
|
IN2
|
IN4
|
|---| |-------| |---+
|

Figure 3-8 - PLC Program with AND-OR and OR-AND Added

3-4.

Example Problem 1

A lighting control system is to be developed. The system will be controlled by four switches, SWITCH1, SWITCH2, SWITCH3, and SWITCH4. These switches will control the lighting in a room based on the following criteria:
1.

Any of three of the switches SWITCH1, SWITCH2, and SWITCH3, if turned
ON can turn the lighting on, but all three switches must be OFF before the lighting will turn OFF.

2.

The fourth switch SWITCH4 is a Master Control Switch. If this switch is in the ON position, the lights will be OFF and none of the other three switches have any control.

Problem:

Design the wiring diagram for the controller connections, assign the inputs and outputs and develop the ladder diagram which will accomplish the task.

The first item we may accomplish is the drawing of the controller wiring diagram.
All we need do is connect all switches to inputs and the lighting to an output and note the numbers of the inputs and output associated with these connections. The remainder of the task becomes developing the ladder diagram. The wiring diagram is shown in Figure 3-9.
3-7

Chapter 3 - Fundamental PLC Programming
SWITCH1

PLC
IN1

S1

OUT1

LIGHTS
CR1

SWITCH2
IN2

OUT2

IN3

S2

OUT3

IN4

OUT4

SWITCH3
S3
SWITCH4
S4

120V
CONTROL
VOLTAGE

120V
CONTROL
VOLTAGE
COM

COM

Figure 3-9 - PLC Wiring Diagram for Example
Problem 1.
Notice that all four switches are shown as normally open selector switches and the output is connected to a relay coil CR1. We are using the relay CR1 to operate the lights because generally the current required to operate a bank of room lights is higher than the maximum current a PLC output can carry. Attempting to operate the room lights directly from the PLC output will most likely damage the PLC.
For this wiring configuration, the following definition list is apparent:
INPUT IN1 = SWITCH1
INPUT IN2 = SWITCH2
INPUT IN3 = SWITCH3
INPUT IN4 = SWITCH4 (Master Control Switch)
OUTPUT OUT1 = Lights control relay coil CR1
This program requires that when SWITCH4 is ON, the lights must be OFF. In order to do this, it would appear that we need a N/C SWITCH4, not a N/O as we have in our wiring diagram. However, keep in mind that once an input signal is brought into a PLC, we may use as many contacts of the input as we need in our program, and the contacts may be either N/O or N/C. Therefore, we may use a N/O switch for SWITCH4 and then in the program, we will logically invert it by using N/C IN4 contacts.
The ladder diagram to implement this example problem is shown in Figure 3-10.
3-8

Chapter 3 - Fundamental PLC Programming
IN1
IN4
OUT1
1)))1 /)))))0))))1//)))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))(OUT)1
IN2
*
*

*

/)))1 /)))))1
*
IN3
*
/)))1 /)))))*
*

Figure 3-10 - Example 1, Lighting Control Program
First, note that this ladder diagram looks smoother than previous ones. This is because, although it was created using the same program, the ladder was printed using graphics characters (extended ASCII characters) instead of standard ASCII characters.
Notice the normally closed contact for IN4. A normally closed contact represents an inversion of the assigned element, in this case IN4, which is defined as SWITCH 4.
Remember, SWITCH 4 has to be in the OFF position before any of the other switches can take control. In the OFF position, SWITCH 4 is open. This means that IN4 will be OFF
(de-energized). So, in order for an element assigned to IN4 to be closed with the switch in the OFF position, it must be shown as a normally closed contact. When SWITCH 4 is turned ON, the input, IN4, will become active (energized). If IN4 is ON, a normally closed
IN4 contact will open. With this contact open in the ladder diagram, none of the other switches will be able to control the output. REMEMBER: A normally closed switch will open when energized and will close when de-energized.

3-5.

Disagreement Circuit

Occasionally, a program rung may be needed which produces an output when two signals disagree (one signal is a logical 1 and the other a logical 0). For example, assume we have two signals A and B. We would like to produce a third signal C under the condition
A=0, B=1 or A=1, B=0. Those familiar with digital logic will recognize this as being the exclusive OR operation in which the expression is C = AB + AB = A ⊕ B . This can also be implemented in ladder logic. Assume the two signals are inputs IN1 and IN2 and the result is OUT1. In this case, the disagreement circuit will be as shown in Figure 3-11.
IN1
IN2
OUT1
1)))1 /)))))))1//)))))0)))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))(OUT)1
IN1
IN2 *
*
/)))1//)))))))1 /)))))*

*

Figure 3-11 - Disagreement Circuit

3-9

Chapter 3 - Fundamental PLC Programming
For this program, OUT1 will be OFF whenever IN1 and IN2 have the same value, i.e., either both ON or both OFF, and OUT1 will be ON when IN1 and IN2 have different values,
i.e., either IN1 ON and IN2 OFF, or IN1 OFF and IN2 ON.
3-6.

Majority Circuit

There are situations in which a PLC must make a decision based on the results of a majority of inputs. For example, assume that a PLC is monitoring five tanks of liquid and must give a warning to the operator when three of them are empty. It doesn’t matter which three tanks are empty, only that any three of the five are empty. As it turns out, by using binomial coefficients, there are ten possible combinations of three empty tanks. There are also combinations of four empty tanks and the possibility of five empty tanks, but as we will see, those cases will be automatically included when we design the system for three empty tanks. It is important when designing majority circuits to design them so that “votes” of more than a marginal majority will also be accepted. For example, let’s assume that for our five tank example, the tanks are labeled A, B, C, D, and E and when an input from a tank is ON, it indicates that the tank is empty. One combination of three empty tanks would be tanks A, B, and C empty and D and E not empty. If this is expressed as a Boolean expression, it would be ABCD’E’. However, this expression would not be true if A, B, C, and D were on, nor would it be true if all of the inputs were on. However, if we leave D and
E as “don’t cares” it will take into account these possibilities. Therefore, we would shorten our expression to ABC, which would cover the conditions ABCD’E’, ABCDE’, ABCD’E, and
ABCDE, all of which would be majority conditions. It turns out that if we write our program to cover all the conditions of three empty tanks, and each expression uses only three inputs, we will cover (by virtue of “don’t cares”) the four combinations of four empty tanks and the one combination of five empty tanks.
To find all the possible combinations of three empty tanks out of five, we begin by constructing a binary table of all possible 5-bit numbers, beginning with 00000 and ending with 11111, and we assign each of the five columns to one of the tanks. To the right of the columns, we make another column which is the sum of the “one’s” in each row. When completed, the table will appear as shown below.

3-10

Chapter 3 - Fundamental PLC Programming
A

B

C

D

E

#

A

B

C

D

E

#

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

0

0

0

1

0

0

0

0

1

1

1

0

0

0

1

2

0

0

0

1

0

1

1

0

0

1

0

2

0

0

0

1

1

2

1

0

0

1

1

3

0

0

1

0

0

1

1

0

1

0

0

2

0

0

1

0

1

2

1

0

1

0

1

3

0

0

1

1

0

2

1

0

1

1

0

3

0

0

1

1

1

3

1

0

1

1

1

4

0

1

0

0

0

1

1

1

0

0

0

2

0

1

0

0

1

2

1

1

0

0

1

3

0

1

0

1

0

2

1

1

0

1

0

3

0

1

0

1

1

3

1

1

0

1

1

4

0

1

1

0

0

2

1

1

1

0

0

3

0

1

1

0

1

3

1

1

1

0

1

4

0

1

1

1

0

3

1

1

1

1

0

4

0

1

1

1

1

4

1

1

1

1

1

5

Then, referring to the table, find every row that has a sum of 3. For each of these rows, write the combination of the three tanks for that row (the columns containing the 1's). The ten combinations of three empty tanks are: CDE, BDE, BCE, BCD, ADE, ACE, ACD, ABE,
ABD, and ABC.
When we write the program for this problem, we can economize on relay contacts in our program. We should keep in mind that simplifying a complex relay structure will save on PLC memory space used by the program. However, if the simplification makes the program difficult for another programmer to read and understand, it should not be simplified. We will simplify by factoring, and then check to see if the ladder diagram is easily readable. We will factor as follows:
A(B(C+D+E)+C(D+E) + DE) + B(C(D+E)+DE) + CDE
3-11

Chapter 3 - Fundamental PLC Programming
The reader is invited to algebraically expand the above expression to verify that all ten of the combinations are covered. This can be written in one rung, with branches as shown in Figure 3-12.
*
IN1
IN2
IN3
OUT1
1)))1 /)))0)))1 /))))0)))1 /)))0)))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))(OUT)1
*
*
IN4
*
*
*
*
/)))1 /)))1
*
*
*
IN5
*
*
*
.)))1 /)))1
*
*
IN3
IN4
*
*
/)))1 /)))0))))1 /)))1
*
*
*
IN5
*
*
*
.)))1 /)))1
*
*
IN4
IN5
*
*
.)))1 /))))))))1 /)))1
*
IN2
IN3
IN4
*
/)))1 /)))0)))1 /))))0)))1 /)))1
*
*
*
IN5
*
*
*
.)))1 /)))1
*
*
IN4
IN5
*
*
.)))1 /))))))))1 /)))1
*
IN3
IN4
IN5
*
/)))1 /))))))))1 /)))))))1 /)))*
*

Figure 3-12 - 5-Input Majority Circuit
3-7.

Oscillator

With the above examples, little or no discussion has been made of scan operations or timing. We have merely assumed that when all the conditions were met for a coil to energize, it would do so. However, we must always be aware of the procedure the controller uses to solve the ladder logic diagram. As an example of how an understanding of scanning can benefit us as programmers, let us develop an oscillator. An oscillator in the ladder diagram world is a coil that turns on and off alternately on each scan. An oscillator can be useful to control things like math functions and other types of functions which are controlled by a transitional contact. A transitional contact is a contact that switches from closed to open or from open to closed. Functions such as math functions in some controllers only perform their assigned process on the one scan when the control logic switches from open to closed. As long as the control logic remains closed or open, the function will not be performed. To enable the function to occur on an ongoing basis, a transitional contact may be placed in the control logic. This will cause the function to be performed on (in the case of using an oscillator) every other scan. This is because the transitional contact from the oscillator will switch from open to closed on every other scan.

3-12

Chapter 3 - Fundamental PLC Programming
We are now going to get away from the previous process of looking at Boolean equations and electrical circuit diagrams, because we are going to be discussing the internal operation of the controller while processing ladder logic and, while a good understanding of Boolean logic is essential to understand the process of solving a particular rung, Boolean equations and electrical diagrams will not supply all the tools and understanding you will need to program these devices. By far, a good programmer relies more on a thorough knowledge of how the controller proceeds with the solution of the ladder and his own imagination than he does on strict Boolean logic.
Consider the ladder diagram of Figure 3-13. This program introduces the internal relay. Internal relays are created by the programmer, can be given any name (in this case,
CR1), and are not accessible by terminals on the outside of the PLC. The number of internal relays is limited by the design of the particular PLC being used. The programmer may create only one coil for each internal relay, but may create as many N/O and N/C contacts of each relay as needed. It is important to remember that these relays don’t actually exist in a physical sense. Each one is simply a digital bit stored in a flip flop inside the PLC.
CR1
CR1
1)))1//)))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))(RLY)1

*
*
*
*

Figure 3-13 - Oscillator
The ladder of Figure 3-13 appears to be very simple, only a normally closed (notice normally closed) contact and a coil. The contact and coil have the same number, so if the coil is energized the contact will be open and if the coil is de-energized the contact will be closed. This is the fact that makes this configuration function to provide a transitional contact. The first thing the controller does when set into operation is to perform an I/O update. In the case of this ladder diagram, the I/O update does nothing for us because neither the contact nor the coil are accessible from the outside world (neither is an input nor output). After the I/O update, the controller moves to the contact logic portion of the first rung. In this case, this is normally closed contact CR1. The contact logic portion is solved to determine if the coil associated with the rung is to be de-energized or energized. In this case, since the controller has just begun operation, all coils are in the de-energized state.
This causes normally closed contact CR1 to be closed (CR1 is de-energized). Since contact CR1 is closed, coil CR1 will be energized. Since this is the only rung of logic in the ladder, the controller will then move on to perform another I/O update. After the update, it will then move on to the first rung (in our example, the only rung) of logic and solve the contact logic. Again, this is one normally closed CR1 contact. However, now CR1 is energized from the last scan, so, contact CR1 will be open. This will cause the controller
3-13

Chapter 3 - Fundamental PLC Programming to de-energize coil CR1. With the ladder diagram solution complete, the controller will then perform another I/O update. Once again it will return to solve the first rung of logic. The solution of the contact logic will indicate that the contact CR1, on this scan, will be closed because coil CR1 was de-energized when the rung was solved on the last scan. Since the contact is closed, coil CR1 will again be energized. This alternating ...on-off-on-off-on... sequence will continue as long as the controller is operating. The coil will be on for one entire scan and off for the next entire scan etc. No matter how many rungs of logic we have in our program, for each scan, coil CR1 would be alternating on for one scan, off for one scan, on for one scan and so on. For a function that only occurs on an off-to-on contact transition, the transition will occur on every other scan. This is one method of forcing a transitional contact.
In controllers that require such a contact, there is generally a special coil that can be programmed which appears to the controller to switch from OFF to ON on every scan.
The rung containing this coil is placed just before the rung requiring the contact. The controller forces the coil containing the transitional contact to an off state at the end of the ladder diagram solution so when the rung to be solved is reached, the coil is in the off state and must be turned on. This provides an off to on transition on every scan which may be used by the function requiring such a contact.
The study of this oscillator rung, if it is thoroughly understood, will provide you with an insight into the operation of the controller that will better help you to develop programs that use the controller to its fullest extent. The fact that the controller solves each rung oneat-a-time, left side logic first and right side coils last, is the reason that a ladder like
Figure 3-13 will function as it does. The same circuit, hardwired using an actual relay would merely buzz after the application of power and perform no useful purpose unless you wanted to make a buzzer. It could not be used to energize any other coil since there is no timing to that type of operation. The reason it would only buzz is that in a hardwired system all rungs are both solved and coils set or reset at the same time. It is this timing and sequential operation of the programmable controller that makes it capable of performing otherwise extremely complicated operations.
Let us now add an additional contact to the rung shown in Figure 3-13, to create the rung in Figure 3-14. The additional contact in this rung is a normally open IN1 contact. If
IN1 is off at I/O update, normally open IN1 will be open for that scan. If IN1 is on at I/O update, normally open contact IN1 will be closed for that scan. This provides us with a method of controlling coil CR1's operation. If we want CR1 to provide a transitional contact, we need to turn IN1 on. If we want CR1 to be inactive for any reason, IN1 needs to be turned off.

3-14

Chapter 3 - Fundamental PLC Programming
IN1
CR1
CR1
1)))1 /)))))))1//)))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))(RLY)1

*

*
*

Figure 3-14 - Gated Oscillator
3-8.

Holding (also called Sealed, or Latched) Contacts

There are instances when a coil must remain energized after contact logic has been found to be true even if on successive scans the logic solution becomes false. A typical application of this would be an ON/OFF control using two separate switches, one to turn the equipment on and one to turn the equipment off. In this case, the coil being controlled by the switches must energize when the ON switch is pressed and remain energized until the OFF switch is pressed. This function is accomplished by developing a rung which contains a holding contact or sealing contact that will maintain the coil in the energized state until released. Such a configuration is shown in Figure 3-15.
IN1
IN2
CR1
1)))1 /)))))0)))1//)))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))(RLY)1
CR1
*
*

*

/)))1 /)))))*

Figure 3-15 - Holding (or Sealed) Contact
Notice that the contact logic of Figure 3-15 contains three contacts, two normally open and one normally closed. Normally open contact IN1 is defined as the ON switch for our circuit and normally closed contact IN2 is defined as the OFF switch. Notice that when
IN1 is turned ON (the normally open contact closes) and IN2 is turned OFF (the normally closed contact is closed), coil CR1 will energize. After CR1 energizes, if IN1 is turned OFF
(the normally open contact is open), coil CR1 will remain energized on subsequent scans because normally open contact CR1 will be closed (since coil CR1 would have been energized on the previous scan). Coil CR1 will remain energized until normally closed contact IN2 is opened by turning IN2 ON because when the normally closed contact IN2 opens the contact logic solution will be false. If IN2 is then turned OFF (the normally closed contact closes), coil CR1 will remain de-energized because the solution of the contact logic will be false since normally open contacts IN1 and CR1 will both be open. Normally open contact CR1 is referred to as a holding contact. Therefore, the operation of this rung of logic would be as follows: when the ON (IN1) switch is momentarily pressed, coil CR1 will energize and remain energized until the OFF switch (IN2) is momentarily pressed.
A holding contact allows the programmer to provide for a coil which will hold itself
ON after being energized for at least one scan. Some instances in which such a configuration is required are ON/OFF control, occasions when a fault may occur for only one scan and must be detected at a later time ( the coil could be latched on when the fault
3-15

Chapter 3 - Fundamental PLC Programming occurs). Another name for such a rung is a latch and the coil is said to be latched on by the contact associated with the coil.
3-9.

Always-ON and Always-OFF Contacts

As programs are developed, there are times when a contact is required that is always ON. In newer PLC's there is generally a coil set aside that meets this requirement.
There are, however, some instances where the programmer will have to generate this type of contact in the ladder. One instance where such a contact is required is for a level-triggered (not transition-triggered) arithmetic operation that is to be performed on every scan. Most PLC's require that at least one contact be present in every rung. To satisfy this requirement and have an always true logic, a contact must be placed in the rung that is always true (always closed). There are two ways to produce such a contact. One is to create a coil that is always de-energized and use a normally closed contact associated with the coil. The other is to create a coil, that is always energized and use a normally open contact associated with the coil. Figure 3-16 illustrates a ladder rung that develops a coil that is always de-energized.
CR1
CR1
CR1
1)))1 /)))))))1//)))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))(RLY)1

*

*
*

Figure 3-16 - Always De-energized Coil
Placing this rung at the top of the program will allow the programmer to use a normally closed contact throughout the ladder anytime a contact is required that is always on.
Notice that coil CR1 will always be de-energized because the logic of normally open CR1 contact AND normally closed CR1 contact can never be true. Anytime a contact is required that is always closed a normally closed CR1 contact may be used since coil CR1 will never energize. Figure 3-17 illustrates a rung which creates a coil CR1 that is always energized.
Notice that the logic solution for this rung is always true since either normally closed CR1 contact OR normally open CR1 contact will always be true. This will cause coil CR1 to energize at the conclusion of the solution of this rung. This rung must be placed at the very beginning of the ladder to provide for an energized coil on the first scan. Anytime a contact is required that is always closed, a normally open CR1 contact may be used since coil CR1 will always be energized.

3-16

Chapter 3 - Fundamental PLC Programming
CR1
CR1
1)))1 /)))))0)))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))(RLY)1
CR1
*
*
/)))1//)))))*

*

Figure 3-17 - Always Energized Coil
There are advantages and disadvantages to using the always de-energized or always energized coil and the use depends on the requirement of the software. If an always de-energized coil is used, it will never be energized, no matter where in the program the rung is located. An always energized coil will be de-energized until the first time the rung is solved, no matter where in the program the rung is located. If there is a program requirement that the coil needs to be de-energized until after the first scan, an always energized coil may be used with the rung placed at the end of the program. This way, the coil would be de-energized until the end of the program where the rung is solved for the first time. After that time the coil will energize and remain energized until the PLC is turned off. 3-10. Ladder Diagrams Having More Than One Rung
Thus far, we have dealt with either ladder diagrams having only one rung, or multiple rung diagrams that may be rearranged in any desired order without affecting the execution of the program. These have served to solve our problems but leave us limited in the things that can be accomplished. Before moving ahead, let us review the steps taken by the controller to solve a ladder diagram. After the I/O update, the controller looks at the contact portion of the first rung. This logic problem is solved based on the states of the elements as stored in memory. This includes all inputs according to the input image table (the state of all inputs at the time of the last I/O update) and the last known state of all coils (both output and internal). After the contact logic has been solved the coil indicated on the right side of the rung is either energized (if the solution is true) or de-energized (if the solution is false). Once this is accomplished, the controller moves on to the next rung of logic and repeats the procedure. The coil of a rung, once set or reset, will remain in that state until the rung containing the coil is again solved on the next scan. If a contact associated with the coil is used in later rungs, the condition of the contact (energized or de-energized) will be based on the state of the coil at the time of the contact usage. For instance, suppose coil CR1 is energized in rung 3 of a ladder diagram. Later in the ladder, say at rung 25, a normally open contact CR1 is used in the control of a coil. The state of contact CR1 will be energized because coil CR1 was energized in the earlier rung. The normally open energized contact will be closed for the purpose of solving the logic of ladder rung 25. After a rung of logic has been solved and the coil set up accordingly, the controller never looks at that rung again until the next scan.
As an aid to further explain these steps, refer to the ladder diagram of Figure 3-18.
3-17

Chapter 3 - Fundamental PLC Programming
IN1
CR1
1)))1 /)))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))(RLY)1

*
*
*
*
*

CR1
OUT1
2)))1 /)))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))(OUT)1

*
*

Figure 3-18 - 2-Rung Ladder Diagram
Let us work our way through the operation of this ladder diagram. Notice that the ladder has only one input, IN1, and one output, OUT1. Coil CR1 is referred to as an internal coil. It is not accessible from outside the controller as OUT1 is. The state of CR1 cannot be readily monitored without being able to see "inside" the machine. In the first rung, IN1 is controlling CR1. In the second rung, a normally open contact of CR1 is used to control the state of OUT1. The solution of the ladder diagram is performed as follows:
After I/O update, the controller looks at the contact configuration of rung 1. In this ladder diagram, this is contact IN1. If contact IN1 is closed (energized since it is normally open), the solution of the contact logic will be true. If contact IN1 is open (de-energized), the solution will be false. Once the contact logic is solved, the controller moves to the coil of rung 1 (CR1). If the contact logic solution was true, coil CR1 will be energized; if the contact logic solution was false, coil CR1 will be de-energized. Notice the "contact logic was true or false" in the previous sentence. This is important because after the controller solves the contact logic of a rung, it will not even consider it again until the next time the rung is solved (in the next scan). So, if IN1 had been turned on at the last I/O update, CR1 would be energized after the solution of the first rung. Conversely, if IN1 was off at the time of the last I/O update, CR1 would be de-energized after the solution of the first rung.
The coil will remain in this state until the next time the controller solves a rung with this coil as the right side, generally on the next scan. After the solution of the first rung is complete, the controller moves to the contact solution of the second rung.
The contact logic of rung 2 consists of one normally open contact, CR1. The condition of this contact at this time depends upon the state of coil CR1 at this time. If coil
CR1 is presently energized, contact CR1 will be closed. If coil CR1 is presently deenergized, contact CR1 will be open. After arriving at a true or false solution for the contact logic, the controller will energize or de-energize OUT1 depending on the result. This completes the solution of the entire ladder diagram. The controller then moves on to I/O update. At this update, the output terminal OUT1 will be turned on or off depending upon the state OUT1 was set to in rung 2, and IN1 will be updated to the present state of IN1 at
I/O update time. The controller will then move back to the contact logic of rung 1 and start the ladder solution process all over again. The solution of the ladder diagram is a sequential operation. For the purpose of analyzing the operation of the ladder the states of inputs, internal coils and output coils can be followed by making a table of states. Such
3-18

Chapter 3 - Fundamental PLC Programming a table is shown below. The table takes into account all possible combinations of inputs.
The table is filled in as each rung is solved. Each line of the table represents the solution of one rung of logic.
1
I/O update
2
3
I/O update
4
5

IN1
0

CR1
0

OUT1
0

1
1

1
1

0
1

0
0

0
0

1
0

Line 1 indicates the condition of inputs and coils at the time the controller is started. IN1 and all coils begin in the off condition. Line 2 shows the condition of the elements after the solution of rung 1 assuming that IN1 was on at the last I/O update. Line 3 shows the condition of the elements after the solution of rung 2. IN1 remains on for rungs 2 and 3 because if it was on at I/O update, it will be used as on for the entire ladder. The state of all inputs can only change at I/O update. Lines 4 and 5 show the element states after solving rungs 1 and 2 respectively assuming that IN1 was turned off. Once the timing and sequencing of ladder diagram processing by the controller is better understood, this table approach can be used with each line indicating the results of processing one scan instead of one rung. This can be a much more useful approach especially since the table could become unmanageable in a ladder that had a large number of rungs.

3-19

Chapter 3 - Fundamental PLC Programming
Chapter 3 Review Questions and Problems
1.

Is a normally closed contact closed or open when the relay coil is energized?

2.

What is the limitation on the number of contacts associated with a particular relay coil in a PLC program?

3.

How is the state of a relay coil represented inside the PLC?

4.

If a particular coil is to be an output of the PLC, when is the state of the coil transferred to the outside world?

5.

Draw the ladder logic rung for a normally open IN1 AND'ed with a normally closed IN2 driving a coil CR1.

6.

Repeat 5 above but OR IN1 and IN2.

7.

What physical changes would be required to system wiring if the PLC system of problem 5 had to be modified to operate as problem 6?

8.

Draw the ladder logic rung for a circuit in which IN1, IN2 and IN3 all have to be ON OR IN1, IN2 and IN3 all have to be OFF in order for OUT1 to energize. 9.

It is desired to implement a switch system similar to a three-way switch system in house wiring, that is, a light may be turned on or off from either of two switches at doors on opposite ends of the room. If the light is turned on at one switch, it may be turned off at the other switch and vice versa. Draw the ladder logic rung which will provide this. Define the two switches and
IN10 and IN11 and the output which will control the light as OUT18.

10.

Draw the ladder logic rung for an oscillator which will operate only when IN3 and IN5 are both ON or both OFF.

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Chapter 4 - Advanced Programming Techniques

Chapter 4 - Advanced Programming Techniques
4-1.

Objectives

Upon completion of this chapter, you will know
” how to take advantage of the order of program execution in a PLC to perform unique functions.
” how to construct fundamental asynchronous and clocked flip flops in ladder logic including the RS, T, D, and JK types.
” how the one-shot operates in a PLC program and how it can be used to edgetrigger flip flops.
” how to use uni-directional and bidirectional counters PLC programs.
” how sequencers functions and how they can be used in a PLC program..
” how timers operate and the difference between retentive and non-retentive timers. 4-2.

Introduction

In addition to the standard logical operations that a PLC can perform, seasoned PLC programmers are aware that, by taking advantages of some of the unique features and characteristics of a PLC, some very powerful operations can be performed. Some of these are operations that would be very difficult to realize in hardwired relay logic, but are relatively simple in PLC ladder programs. Many of the program segments in this chapter are rather “cookbook” by nature. The student should not concentrate on memorizing these programs, but instead, learn how they work and how they can be best applied to solve programming problems.
4-3.

Ladder Program Execution Sequence

Many persons new to PLC ladder logic programming may tend to think that, because a PLC executes its program synchronously (i.e., from left to right, top to bottom), instead of asynchronously (i.e., each relay operates whenever it receives a signal) it is a hindrance to the programming task. However, after gaining some experience with programming
PLCs, the programmer begins to learn how to use this to their advantage. We will see several useful program segments in this chapter that do this. Keep in mind that the order of the rungs in these programs is critical. If the rungs are rearranged in another order, it is likely that these programs will not operate properly.

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Chapter 4 - Advanced Programming Techniques
4-4.

Flip Flops

As we will see in the following several sections, a few of the circuits you learned to use in digital electronics can be developed for use in a ladder diagram. The ones we will study are the R-S, D, T and J-K Flip Flops and the One Shot. The One Shot will supply the clock pulse for the D, T and J-K Flip Flops. These are functions that can be very useful in a control system and tend to be more familiar to the student since they have been studied in previous courses.
4-5.

RS Flip Flop

The R-S Flip Flop is the most basic of the various types. It has two inputs, an R
(reset) and an S (set). Turning on the R input resets the flip flop and turning on the S input sets the flip flop. As you may recall from the study of this type of flip flop, the condition where R and S are both on is an undefined state. The truth table for an R-S Flip Flop is shown in Table 4-1.
R

S

Q

Q'

0

0

Q

Q'

0

1

1

0

1

0

0

1

1

1

X

X

Table 4-1 - Truth
Table for RS Flip
Flop

For the purpose of our discussion, a 1 in the table indicates an energized condition for a coil or contact (if energized, a normally closed contact will be open). An X in the table indicates a don't care condition. The ladder diagram for such a circuit is shown in
Figure 4-1.

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Chapter 4 - Advanced Programming Techniques

Figure 4-1 - RS Flip Flop
S = IN1, R = IN2
If you study Figure 4-1, you can see that if IN2 energizes, coil CR1 will de-energize and if
IN2 de-energizes and IN1 energizes, coil CR1 will energize. Once CR1 energizes, contact
CR1 will close, holding coil CR1 in an energized state even after IN1 de-energizes until IN2 energizes to reset the coil. Relating to the truth table of Table 4-1, you can determine that
IN1 is the S input and IN2 is the R input to the flip flop. You may notice in the truth table that both a Q and Q' outputs are indicated. If an inverted Q signal is required from this ladder, one only needs to make the contact a normally closed CR1 (a normally closed contact is open when it's coil is energized).
4-6.

One Shot

As with the oscillator covered in a previous chapter, the one shot has its own definition in the world of ladder logic. In digital electronics a one shot is a monostable multivibrator that has an output that is on for a predetermined length of time. This time is adjusted by selecting the proper timing components. A one shot in ladder logic is a coil that is on for one scan and one scan only each time it is triggered. The length of time the one shot coil is on depends on the scan time of the PLC. The one shot can be triggered by an outside input to the controller or from a contact associated with another coil in the ladder diagram. It can also be a coil that energizes for one scan automatically at startup. It is this type we will study first, then the externally triggered type.
A one shot that comes on for one scan at program startup is shown in Figure 4-2.

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Chapter 4 - Advanced Programming Techniques

Figure 4-2 - Automatic One Shot
This one shot consists of two rungs of logic. The two rungs are placed at the beginning of the ladder diagram. Coil CR1 is the one shot coil. If you analyze the first rung, you can see that, since all coils are off at the beginning of operation, normally closed contact CR2 will be closed (coil CR2 is de-energized). This will result in coil CR1 being energized in the first rung of the ladder. The PLC then moves to the second rung which contains the remaining part of the one shot. When the controller solves the contact logic of this rung, normally open contact CR1 will be closed (CR1 was energized in the first rung). Normally open contact CR2 is open (CR2 is still de-energized from startup). Since contact CR1 is closed, coil CR2 will be energized in the second rung. The PLC will then proceed with solutions of the remaining rungs of the ladder diagram. After I/O update, the controller will return to rung one. At this time contact CR2 will be open (coil CR2 was energized on the previous scan). The solution to the contact logic will be false and coil
CR1 will be de-energized. When the PLC solves the logic for rung two, the contact logic will be true because even though coil CR1 is de-energized making contact CR1 open, coil
CR2 is still energized from the previous scan. This makes contact CR2 closed which will keep coil CR2 energized for as long as the controller is operating. Coil CR2 will remain closed because each time the controller arrives at the second rung, contact CR2 will be closed due to coil CR2 being energized from the previous scan. The result of this ladder is that coil CR1 will energize on the first scan of operation, de-energize on the second scan and remain de-energized for the remaining time the controller is in operation. On the other hand, coil CR2 will be de-energized until the first solution of rung two on the first scan of operation, then energize and remain energized for the remaining time the controller is in operation. Each time the controller is turned off then turned back on, this sequence will take place. This is because the controller resets all coils to their de-energized state at the onset of operation. If any operation in the ladder requires that a contact be closed or open for the first scan after startup, this type of network can be used. Coil CR1 will remain
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Chapter 4 - Advanced Programming Techniques closed for the length of time that is required to complete the first scan of operation regardless of the time required.
Notice, however, that we have two coils, CR1 and CR2 that are complements of each other. Whenever one is on, the other is off. In ladder logic, this is redundant because if we need the complement of a coil, we merely need to use a normally closed contact from the coil instead of a normally open contact. For this reason, a simpler type of one shot that is in one state for the first scan and the other state for all succeeding scans can be used.
This is a coil that is off for the first scan and on for all other scans. Any time a contact from this coil is required, a normally closed contact may be used. This contact would be closed for the first scan (the scan that the coil is de-energized) and open for all other scans (the coil is energized). Such a ladder diagram is shown in Figure 4-3.

Figure 4-3 - One Shot Ladder Diagram
This one shot only consists of one rung of logic which is placed at the end of the ladder diagram. Notice that the contact logic for the rung includes two contacts, one normally open and one normally closed. Since both contacts are for the same coil (CR2), no matter what the status of CR2 the contact logic will be true. This can be proven by writing the Boolean expression for the contact logic and reducing. An expression which contains a signal OR it's complement is always true ( A + A = 1 ). This means that CR2 will be off until the controller arrives at the last rung of logic. When the last rung is solved, the result will be that CR2 is turned on. Each time the controller arrives at the last rung of logic on each scan, the result will be the same. CR2 will be off for the first scan and on for every scan thereafter until the controller is turned off and back on. Any rung that requires a contact that is on for the first scan only would include a normally closed CR2 contact.

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Chapter 4 - Advanced Programming Techniques
Any rung that requires a contact that is off for the first rung only would contain a normally open CR2 contact.
The other type of one shot mentioned is one that is triggered from an external source such as a contact input from inside or outside the controller. We will study one triggered from an input contact. Once the operation is understood, it does not matter what the reference for the contact is, coil or input, the operation is the same. The ladder diagram for such a one shot is shown in Figure 4-4.

Figure 4-4 - Externally Triggered One Shot
You will notice that this type of one shot is also composed of two rungs of logic. In this case, the portion of the ladder that needs the one shot contact is place after the two rungs. In operation, with IN1 de-energized (open), the two coils, CR1 and CR2 are both de-energized. On the first scan after IN1 is turned on, CR1 will be energized in the first rung and CR2 in the second. On the second scan after IN1 is turned on, CR1 will deenergize due to the normally closed CR2 contact in the first rung. CR2 will remain on for every scan that IN1 is on. The result is that coil CR1 will energize for only the first scan after IN1 turns on. After that first scan, coil CR1 will de-energize. The system will remain in that state, CR1 off and CR2 on until the scan after IN1 turns off. On that scan, coil CR1 will de-energize in the first rung and coil CR2 will de-energize in the second rung. This places the system ready to again produce a one shot signal on the next IN1 closure with coil CR1 controlling the contact that will perform the function. If a contact closure is required for the function requiring the one shot signal, a normally open CR1 contact may be used. If a contact opening is required, a normally closed CR1 contact may be used.
This type of one shot function is helpful in implementing the next types of flip flops, the D,
T and J-K Flip Flops. The D flip flop may be designed with or without the one shot while the T and J-K flip flops require a clock signal, in this case we will use IN1 for our input clock and a one shot to produce the single scan contact closure each time IN1 is turned on.
4-7.

D Flip Flop
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Chapter 4 - Advanced Programming Techniques
As you will recall from digital courses, a D flip flop has two inputs, the D input and a trigger or clock input. In operation, the state of the D input is transferred to the Q output of the flip flop at the time of the trigger pulse. The truth table for a D flip flop is shown in
Table 4-2.
D

CL

Qn

Qn+1

0

0

X

Qn

0

1

X

0

1

0

Q

Qn

1

1

X

1

Table 4-2 - Truth Table for D Flip Flop

The headings of the columns in Table 4-2 should be explained. The column labeled Qn contains the state of the flip flop Q output prior to the trigger and the column labeled Qn+1 contains the state of the Q output of the flip flop after the application of the trigger. An X indicates a don't care situation. A 1 in the CL column indicates that the clock makes a 0 to 1 to 0 transition.

Figure 4-5 - Ladder Diagram for D Flip Flop
IN1 = D, IN2 = Trigger
A ladder D Flip Flop is shown in Figure 4-5. The D Flip Flop shown is a one rung function with two inputs, IN1 and IN2, and one coil CR1. IN1 is defined, in this case, as the
D input and IN2 is defined as the trigger. The D flip flop can use either a non timed contact closure, or, a single scan contact closure from a one shot. We will discuss the latter style
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Chapter 4 - Advanced Programming Techniques next. This is the first case in which normally open and normally closed contacts referenced to the same input (IN2). We are able to utilize this type of contact arrangement because when the controller solves the contact logic, the states of the input contacts are dependent upon their states at the last I/O update. Let us assume that the controller has just been set into operation and that all coils are de-energized. Also, at this time we will let IN1 and IN2 be off, resulting in normally open contacts IN1 and IN2 being open and normally closed IN2 contact being closed. In this state, coil CR1 will remain de-energized on every scan. Now, let IN1 (the D input) turn on. Each time the controller solves the rung in this state, the upper branch of logic (IN1 and IN2 contacts) will be false because IN2 is still off and the lower branch of contacts (CR1 and IN2) will be false because CR1 is de-energized. This means that coil CR1 will remain de-energized. If IN2 is now turned on, the upper branch of contacts will become true because IN1 and IN2 will both be on. The result is that coil
CR1 will energize on the first scan after IN2 turns on and will remain energized as long as
IN2 is on. IN2 is the trigger signal for the flip flop. When the trigger signal is turned off
(IN2), coil CR1 will remain in the energized state. This is because the lower branch of contacts (CR1 and IN2) will be true (CR1 is energized and IN2 is off). If IN2 (the trigger) turns on and off again and IN1 is still on, the same events will occur; the upper branch of contacts will be true which will hold coil CR1 energized while IN2 is on and the lower branch of contacts will be true and hold CR1 energized when IN2 turns off. This is what we want. If the D input to the flip flop is true, we want the Q output to stay in a 1 state after the trigger. Let us now discuss the effect of the D input being set to a 0. On the first scan after IN2 (the trigger) turns on, if IN1 (D) is off, coil CR1 will de-energize. This is because both branches of contacts will be false, the upper because IN1 is off and the lower because
IN2 is on. On subsequent scans, coil CR1 will remain de-energized because, again, both branches of contacts will be false, the upper with IN2 off and the lower because CR1 was de-energized. Let us now discuss the operation of a D flip flop having D input IN1 with a single scan trigger invoked from an outside input contact, IN2. The truth table is still as in
Table 4-2. The ladder diagram for such a system is shown in Figure 4-6.

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Chapter 4 - Advanced Programming Techniques

Figure 4-6 - Ladder Diagram for D Flip Flop with
Single Scan Trigger, IN1 = D, IN2 = Trigger
You will see that the D flip flop has the same look as before with a different contact name for the trigger. Previously, the trigger was an input contact, now it is an internal coil CR2.
The first and second rungs are the externally triggered one shot of the type discussed with
Figure 4-4. The input contact in this example has been changed to IN2 and the one shot coil is now CR2. Each time IN2 is turned on, coil CR2 will energize for one scan only. The action on the flip flop will be the same as if the trigger input (IN2) of Table 4-2 were turned on for one scan and turned off for the very next scan, something that is almost if not totally impossible to accomplish with mechanical pushbutton switches. Keep in mind that the trigger contact that initiates the one shot function could be a contact from a coil within the ladder. This would allow the ladder itself to control the flip flop operation inside the program. 4-8.

T Flip Flop

The T type flip flop also has two inputs. The clock input performs the same type function as in the D flip flop. It initiates the flip flop action. The second input, however, is unlike the D flip flop. The second input to a T flip flop (the T input) enables or disables the trigger operation (as opposed to a trigger clock signal in the previous discussion). A T flip flop will remain in it's present state upon the application of a clock signal if the T input is a
0. If the T input is a 1, the flip flop will toggle to the other state upon application of a clock signal. The truth table for this flip flop is shown in Table 4-3.
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Chapter 4 - Advanced Programming Techniques
T

CL

Qn

Qn+1

0

0

X

Qn

0

1

X

Qn

1

0

Q

Qn

1

1

Q

Q n'

Table 4-3 - Truth Table for T Flip Flop

A 1 in the CL (clock) column indicates that the clock makes a 0 to 1 to 0 transition.
The Qn column is the state of the flip flop prior to the application of the clock and the Qn+1 column is the state of the flip flop after the clock. An X in the table indicates a don't care condition. The ladder diagram of a T Flip Flop is shown in Figure 4-7.

Figure 4-7 - Ladder Diagram for a T Flip Flop
IN1 = T, IN2 = Trigger
The T flip flop is formed by all three rungs. The method is to use a toggling coil
(CR1) and a one shot. The one shot is composed of the first and second rungs. The one shot portion of the ladder is very similar to the one of Figure 4-4 except that the one of
Table 4-3 is triggered by IN2 instead of IN1 and there is an additional normally open
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Chapter 4 - Advanced Programming Techniques contact (IN1) in the first rung. The purpose of the normally open IN1 contact is to provide for the T input to the flip flop network. Remember that the T input controls whether the flip flop will toggle or not. If T is a 1, the flip flop will toggle and if T is a 0, the flip flop will not toggle. In the ladder of Table 4-3, The one shot will not trigger if IN1 is a zero because rung one will not have a contact logic that is true if IN1 is not a 1. As we will shortly discuss, the coil of rung 3 (CR1) will not toggle if IN1 does not enable the triggering of the one shot. The contact logic for rung three has two branches, one containing the AND combination of a normally closed CR1 contact and a normally open CR2 contact. The lower branch contains the AND combination of a normally open CR1 contact and a normally closed CR2 contact. The two AND contact combinations are OR'ed together to form the total contact logic for the toggle coil CR1. If IN1 and IN2 are both true at the I/O update, the one shot will trigger just as in our previous discussion of one shot operation.
If this is the case, one shot coil CR2 will be energized for only the first scan after that I/O update. If IN1 is not true when IN2 attempts to trigger the toggle flip flop, one shot coil CR2 will not energize at all. Let us assume that toggle coil CR1 is de-energized and that one shot coil CR2 has been enabled and is on for the one scan presently being executed.
When the controller arrives at rung three and solves the contact logic, the upper branch will be true because coil CR1 is de-energized making normally closed contact CR1 closed and the normally open CR2 contact will be closed (CR2 is energized for this scan). This will result in the controller energizing coil CR1. On the second and all other scans after IN2 turns on, coil CR2 will be de-energized. On these scans, when the controller arrives at the third rung, the lower branch of contact logic will be true. This is because CR1 is energized and CR2 is de-energized. IN2 must turn off and then back on for the toggle to operate once more. When this occurs, one shot coil CR2 will again be on for the first scan after IN2 turns on, assuming that IN1 was on at the time. When the controller solves the contact logic of rung three on this scan the upper branch will be false because CR1 is energized and the lower branch will be false because one shot coil CR2 is energized. This will cause toggle coil CR1 to de-energize. On the second and all other scans after IN2 turns on, both branches will still be false, the upper because coil CR2 is de-energized and the lower because coil CR1 is de-energized. The rung will continue to be solved with this result until the one shot coil CR2 is again energized for the one scan after IN2 turns on with IN1 on.
4-9.

J-K Flip Flop

The last flip flop implementation we will discuss is the J-K Flip Flop. The truth table for such a device is shown in Table 4-4.

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Chapter 4 - Advanced Programming Techniques
J

K

CL

Qn

Qn+1

0

0

1

Qn

Qn

0

1

1

X

0

1

0

1

X

1

1

1

1

Qn

Q n'

X

X

0

Qn

Qn

Table 4-4 - Truth Table for J-K
Flip Flop
An X in any block indicates a don't care condition. A 1 in the CL (clock) column indicates the clock makes a 0 to 1 to 0 transition. A 0 in the CL column indicates no clock transition. The Qn column contains the flip flop state prior to the application of a clock and the Qn+1 column contains the flip flop state after the clock. The ladder diagram for a J-K Flip
Flop in which IN1 = J, IN2 = K and IN3 = CL is shown in Figure 4-8.

Figure 4-8 Ladder Diagram for a JK Flip Flop
IN1 = J, IN2 = K, IN3 = Trigger

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Chapter 4 - Advanced Programming Techniques
As with the T flip Flop, this function is composed of three rungs of logic, the first and second being a one shot circuit. As with the T flip flop, the third rung is the flip flop itself.
In this case, it happens to be a toggling coil (CR1). Whether the coil toggles or not is decided upon in the first rung by the OR combination of normally open IN1 AND normally closed CR1 contacts with normally open IN2 AND normally open CR1 contacts. This combination was not placed there by accident. This was developed by deciding upon a T type flip flop as the basic function and using logic to determine if the flip flop should toggle or not. If the truth table for a J-K flip flop is studied in a boolean manner using J, K and Q as inputs to the boolean logic, you will find that the flip flop will toggle according to the
Boolean equation T (toggle) = K Q = J Q'. Let's develop this expression to illustrate how
Boolean logic and ladder logic can work together.
Note that in Table 4-4 there are don't care states included in the table. A don't care state in binary describes two possible states, the case when the signal is a 1 and the case when the signal is a 0. Also, there are locations in the truth table that show a present state as Qn. This also describes two possible states for that particular signal. If we decide to control a T flip flop in a manner that will simulate the operation of a J-K flip flop, we can do so as long as we define the inputs to the logic and the output of the logic. In the case of our ladder type T flip flop, the output of the logic will need to cause the one shot to trigger since the ladder T flip flop merely toggles whenever the one shot is allowed to trigger. With this being the case, we need only control the one shot portion of the ladder to cause the toggle coil to toggle or not toggle as required by the conditions of a truth table for the device. In this case, it must be a truth table that shows each possible state for all inputs to the logic. Two required inputs to the logic are obviously J and K. However, to decide whether or not to toggle the flip flop, we must know the state of the flip flop at the time. For instance, if Q = 1, J = 1 and K = 0 there is no need to toggle the flip flop because it is a 1 before the clock and needs to be a 1 after the clock. On the other hand, if Q = 1, J = 0 and
K = 1 the flip flop needs to switch to a 0 so we have to toggle it. If we develop a truth table taking all possible states of J, K and Q into account, it will look like Table 4-5.

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Chapter 4 - Advanced Programming Techniques
J

K

Q

T

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

0

1

0

0

0

1

1

1

1

0

0

1

1

0

1

0

1

1

0

1

1

1

1

1

Table 4-5 - Truth
Table for R-S Flip
Flop Using a T Flip
Flop
The J, K and Q columns account for all possible states of the three inputs and the
T column indicates whether the flip flop must toggle. If T is a 1, the one shot function must be allowed to occur upon the turning on of IN3. The Karnough Map representing this truth table with the input states filled in is shown in Table 4-6.
JK
Q

00

01

1

1

10

1

0

11

1

1

Table 4-6 - Karnaugh Map for
Table 4-5

From the map, the simplified equation for the trigger enable will be T = KQ + J Q .

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Chapter 4 - Advanced Programming Techniques
If we implement this expression using ladder contact logic, the ladder portion would be as shown in Figure 4-9. The input definitions already set are used in this figure.

Figure 4-9 - Contact Logic Required to
Implement T = KQ + J Q
If you refer back to Figure 4-8, you will see this contact configuration in the first rung of the ladder controlling the triggering of the one shot from IN3. The result is that the ladder diagram of Figure 4-8 will function as a J-K flip flop.
4-10. Counters
A counter is a special function included in the PLC program language that allows the PLC to increment or decrement a number each time the control logic for the rung switches from false to true. This special function generally has two control logic lines, one which causes the counter to count each time the control becomes true and one which causes the counter to reset when the control line is true. A typical counter is shown in
Figure 4-10.

Figure 4-10 - Counter

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Chapter 4 - Advanced Programming Techniques
Notice that this special function has two control lines one containing a normally open contact IN1 and one containing normally open contact IN2. The counter itself has a coil associated with it that is numbered CTR1. Notice too, that inside the function block are two labels, ACTUAL and PRESET. These ACTUAL and PRESET items contain numbers. The
PRESET value is the maximum count allowed for the counter. This number may be held as a constant value in permanent memory or as a variable in a Holding Register. A holding register is a memory location in RAM which may be altered as required. The programmer would use a holding register for the PRESET value of the counter if the maximum count value needed to change depending upon program operation such as in a program that needed to count items to be placed in a box. If different size boxes were used depending upon the product and quantity to be shipped, the counter maximum may need to change. The ACTUAL value is maintained in a RAM location because it is the present value of the counter. As the counter counts, this value must change and it is this value compared to the PRESET value that the PLC uses to determine if the counter is at its maximum value. As the ACTUAL value increases with each count it is compared to the
PRESET value. When the ACTUAL value is equal to the PRESET value, the counter will stop counting and the coil associated with the counter (in this case CTR1) will be energized. In our example in Figure 4-10, contacts IN1 and IN2 control the counter. The top line, containing IN1, is referred to as the COUNT LINE. The lower control line, containing
IN2 is referred to as the RESET LINE. Note that with some PLC manufacturers the two input lines are reversed that shown in Figure 4-10, with the RESET line on top and the
COUNT line below. In operation, if IN2 is closed the counter will be held in the reset condition, that is, the ACTUAL value will be set to zero no matter whether IN1 is open or closed. As long as the reset line is true, the ACTUAL value will be held at zero regardless of what happens to the count line. If the RESET LINE is opened, the counter will be allowed to increment the ACTUAL value each time the count control line switches from false to true (off to on). In our example that will be each time IN1 switches from open to closed. The counter will continue to increment the ACTUAL value each time IN1 switches from open to closed until the ACTUAL value is equal to the PRESET value. At that time the counter will stop incrementing the ACTUAL value and coil CTR1 will be energized. If at any time during the counting process the RESET control line containing IN2 is made to switch to true, the ACTUAL value will be reset to zero and the next count signal from IN1 will cause the ACTUAL value to increment to 1.
Different PLC manufacturers handle counters in different ways. Some counters operate as described above. Another approach taken in some cases is to reset the
ACTUAL value to the PRESET value (rather than reset it to zero), and decrement the
ACTUAL value toward zero. In this case the coil associated with the counter is energized when the ACTUAL value is equal to zero rather than when it is equal to the PRESET value.

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Chapter 4 - Advanced Programming Techniques
Some manufacturers have counters that are constructed using two separate rungs.
These have an advantage in that the reset rung can be located anywhere in the program and does not need to be located immediately following the count rung. Figure 4-11 shows a counter of this type. In this sample program, note that N/O IN1 in rung 1 causes the counter to increment (or decrement, if it is a down counter) and N/O IN2 in rung 2 causes the counter C1 to reset to zero (or reset to the preset value if it is a down counter). Rung
3 has been added to show how a counter of this type can be used. Contact C1 in rung 3 is a contact of counter C1. It is energized when counter C1 reaches its preset value (if it is a down counter, it will energize when C1 reaches a count of zero). The result is that output OUT1 will be energized when input IN1 switches on a number of times equal to the preset value of counter C1.
*
IN1
C1
1)))1 /)))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))(CTR)1
*
*
*
*

IN2
C1
2)))1 /)))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))[RSctr]1

*
*
*
*

C1
OUT1
3)))1 /)))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))(OUT)1
*

Figure 4-11 - Two-Rung Counter and Output Rung
In some cases it is convenient to have a counter that can count in either of the two directions, called a bidirectional counter. For example, in a situation where a PLC needs to maintain a running tally of the total number of parts in a que where parts are both entering and exiting the que, a bidirectional counter can be incremented when a part enters and decremented when a part exits the que. Figure 4-12 shows a bidirectional counter, C2, which has three inputs and consists of three rungs. Rung one controls the counting of C2 in the up direction, rung two controls C2 in the down direction, and rung three resets C2.

4-17

Chapter 4 - Advanced Programming Techniques
*
IN1
C2
1)))1 /)))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))[Upctr]1
*
*
*
*
IN2
C2
2)))1 /)))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))[DNctr]1
*
*
*
*
IN3
C2
3)))1 /)))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))[RSctr]1
*

Figure 4-12 - UP/Down Counter

4-11. Sequencers
Some machine control applications require that a particular sequence of events occur, and with each step of the controller, a different operation be performed. The programming element to do this type of control is called a sequencer. For example, the timer in a washing machine is a mechanical sequencer in that it has the machine perform different operations (fill, wash, drain, spin) in a predetermined sequence. Although a washing machine timer is a timed sequencer, sequencers in a PLC are not necessarily timed. An example of a non-timed sequencer is a garage door opener. It performs the sequence ...up, stop, down, stop, up stop,... with each step in the sequence being activated by a switch input or remote control input.
PLC sequencers are fundamentally counters with some extra features and some minor differences. Counters will generally count to either their preset value (in the case of up counters) or zero (for down counters) and stop when they reach their terminal count.
However, sequencers are circular counters; that is, they will “roll over” (much like an automobile odometer) and continue counting. If the sequencer is of the type that counts up from zero to the preset, on the next count pulse after reaching the preset, it will reset to zero and begin counting up again. If the sequencer is of the type that counts down, on the next count pulse after it reaches zero, it will load the preset value and continue counting down. Like counters, sequencers have reset inputs that reset them either to zero (for the types that count up) or to the preset value (for the types that count down). As with counters, some PLC manufacturers provide sequencers with a third input (usually called
UP/DN) that controls the count direction. These are called bidirectional sequencers or reversible sequencers. Alternately, other bidirectional sequencers have separate count up and count down inputs.
4-18

Chapter 4 - Advanced Programming Techniques
Unlike counters, sequencers have contacts that actuate at any specified count of the sequence. For example, if we have an up-counting sequencer SEQ1 with a preset value of 10, and we would like to have a rung switch on when the sequencer reaches a count of
8, we would simply put a N/O contact of SEQ1=8 (or SEQ1:8) in the rung. For this contact, when the sequencer is at a count of 8, the contact will be on. The contact will be off for all other values of sequencer SEQ1. In our programs, we are allowed as many contacts of a sequencer as desired of either polarity (N/O or N/C), and of any sequence value. If for example, we would like our sequencer, SEQ1, to switch on an output OUT1 whenever the sequencer is in count 3 or 8 of it’s sequence, we would simply connect N/O contacts
SEQ1:3 and SEQ1:8 in parallel to operate OUT1. This is shown in Figure 4-13. In rung one, N/O contact IN1 advances the sequencer SEQ1 each time the contacts close. In rung two, N/O contact IN2 resets SEQ1 when the contact closes. In rung three, output OUT1 is energized when the sequencer SEQ1 is in either state 3 or state 8.
*
IN1
Seq1
1)))1 /)))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))[AVseq]1
*
*
*
*
IN2
Seq1
2)))1 /)))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))[RSseq]1
*
*
*
* Seq1:3
OUT1
3)))1 /)))0)))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))(OUT)1
* Seq1:8 *
/)))1 /)))*

Figure 4-13 - Sequencer and Output Rung

4-12. Timers
A timer is a special counter ladder function which allows the PLC to perform timing operations based on a precise internal clock, generally 0.1 or 0.01 seconds per clock pulse.
Timers usually fall into two different categories depending on the PLC manufacturer. These are retentive and non-retentive timers. A non-retentive timer is one which has one control line, that is, the timer is either timing or it is reset. When this type of timer is stopped, it is automatically reset. This will become more clear as discussion of timers continues. The retentive timer has two control lines, count and reset. This type of timer may be started, stopped then restarted without resetting. This means that it may be used as a totalizing timer by simply controlling the count line. Independent resetting occurs by activating the reset control line. At the beginning of this section, it was stated that a timer is a special
4-19

Chapter 4 - Advanced Programming Techniques counter. The timing function is performed by allowing the counter to increment or decrement at a rate controlled by the internal system clock. Timers typically increment or decrement at 0.1 second or 0.01 second rates depending upon the PLC manufacturer.
An example of a non-retentive timer is shown in Figure 4-14. Notice that this timer has only one control line containing normally open contact IN1. Also notice that, like the counter, there are two values, ACTUAL and PRESET. These values are, as with the counter, the present and final values for the timer. While the control line containing, in this case, IN1 is false (IN1 is open) the ACTUAL value of the timer is held reset to zero. When the control line becomes true (IN1 closes), the timer ACTUAL value is incremented each
0.1 or 0.01 second. When the ACTUAL value is equal to the PRESET value, the coil associated with the timer (in this case TIM1) is energized and ACTUAL value incrementing ceases. The PRESET value must be set so that the timer counter ACTUAL value will increment from zero to the PRESET value in the desired time. For instance, suppose a timer of 5.0 seconds is required using a 0.1 second rate timer. The PRESET value would have to be 50 for this function since it would take 5.0 seconds for the counter to count from zero to 50 utilizing a 0.1 second clock (50 X 0.1 second = 5.0 seconds). If a 0.01 second clock were available, the PRESET value would have to be 500.

Figure 4-14 - Non-retentive Timer

An example of a retentive timer is shown in Figure 4-15. This type of timer looks more like the counter discussed earlier. The two control lines operate in much the same manner as the counter in that the lower line is the reset line. The top line, however, in the case of the timer is the time line. As long as the reset line is true and the time line is true, the timer will increment at the clock rate toward the PRESET value. As with the nonretentive timer, when the ACTUAL value is equal to the PRESET value, the coil associated with the timer will be energized and timer incrementing will cease. As with the timer, the
PRESET value must be chosen so that the ACTUAL value will increment to the PRESET value in the time desired dependent upon the clock rate.

4-20

Chapter 4 - Advanced Programming Techniques

Figure 4-15 - Retentive Timer
In some cases the PLC manufacturer will, as with the counter, design the timer to decrement the ACTUAL value from the PRESET value toward zero with the coil associated with the timer being energized when the ACTUAL value is equal to zero.
As can be seen from the above explanation for timers and counters, these functions are very similar in operation. Typically, the maximum number of timers and counters a PLC supports is a represented as the total combined number. That is, a system may specify a maximum total of 64 timer/counters. This means that the total of timers and counters can only be 64: therefore, if the program contains 20 timers, it can only contain 44 counters (20 timers + 44 counters = 64 timer/counters). The numbering of the timers and counters is handled differently by different manufacturers. In some cases they are numbered sequentially (TIM1 - TIM.. and CTR1 - CTR..) while in other cases they may not be allowed to share the same number (if TIM1 is present there cannot be a CTR1). Numbering and operation are dependent upon manufacturer and in some instances on the model of the
PLC.
Example Problem:
Design a PLC program that will operate a light connected to output OUT1 when input
IN1 is ON. When IN1 is ON, the output OUT1 is to flash continuously ON for 0.5 second and off for 1.0 second.
Solution:
Since there are two times specified in this problem (0.5 second and 1.0 second), we will need two timers.

4-21

Chapter 4 - Advanced Programming Techniques
Chapter 4 Review Questions and Problems
1.

Draw the ladder rung for an R-S type flip flop that will energize when both IN1
AND IN2 are on and will de-energize when both IN3 AND IN4 are ON. The condition where all inputs are on will not be a defined state for this problem,
i.e., it will not be allowed to occur so you do not have to plan for it.

2.

Draw the ladder diagram for a T flip flop CR1 which will toggle only when IN1 and IN2 are both OFF.

3.

Develop the ladder for a system of two T flip flops which will function as a two bit binary counter. The least significant bit should be CR1 and the most significant bit should be CR2. The clock input should be IN17.

4.

Develop the ladder diagram for a 3 bit shift register using J-K flip flops that will shift each time IN1 is switched from OFF to ON. The input for the shift register is to be IN2. The three coils for the shift register may be any coil numbers you choose.

5.

Design the ladder diagram for a BCD counter using T flip flops. The LSB of the counter is to be CR1 and the MSB is to be CR4. The clock input is IN2.

6.

Design the ladder diagram for a device that will count parts as they pass by an inspection stand. The sensing device for the PLC is a switch that will close each time a part passes. This switch is connected to IN1 of the PLC.
A reset switch, IN2, is also connected to the PLC to allow the operator to manually reset the counter. After 15 parts have passed the inspection stand, the PLC is to reset the counter to again begin counting parts and turn on a light which must stay on until reset by a second reset switch connected to
IN3. The output from the PLC that lights the light is OUT111.

7.

Design the ladder diagram for a program which needs a timer which will cause a coil CR24 to energize for one scan every 5.5 seconds.

4-22

Chapter 5 - Mnemonic Programming Code

Chapter 5 - Mnemonic Programming Code
5-1.

Objectives

Upon completion of this chapter, you will know
” why mnemonic code is used in some cases instead of graphical ladder language.
” some of the more commonly used mnemonic codes for AND OR and INVERT operations. ” how to represent ladder branches in mnemonic code.
” how to use stack operations when entering mnemonic coded programs.
5-2.

Introduction

All discussions in previous sections have considered only the ladder diagram in all program example development. The next thing to be considered is how to get the ladder diagram into the programmable controller. In higher order controllers, this can be accomplished through the use of dedicated personal computer software that allows the programmer to enter the ladder diagram as drawn. The software then takes care of translating the ladder diagram into the code required by the controller. In the lower order, more basic controllers, this has to be performed by the programmer and entered by hand into the controller. It is this type of language and the procedure for translating the ladder diagram into the required code that will be discussed in this chapter. This will be accomplished by retracing the examples and ladder diagrams developed in earlier chapters and translating them into the mnemonic code required to program a general controller.
This controller will be programmed in a somewhat generic type of code. As the code is learned, comparisons will be presented with similar types of statements found in controller use. The student will have only to adapt to the statements required by the type of controller being used to develop a program for that controller.
5-3.

AND Ladder Rung

Let us begin with the ladder diagram of Figure 5-1. This is the AND combination of two contacts, IN1 and IN2 controlling coil OUT1.

5-1

Chapter 5 - Mnemonic Programming Code

Figure 5-1 - Ladder Diagram for AND Function

Ladder diagrams are made up of branches of contact logic connected together which control a coil. For instance, IN1 AND IN2 can be considered a branch. This rung has only one branch. We will see examples of multiple branches later. The code command which alerts the controller to the beginning of a branch is LD. The LD command tells the controller that the following set of contacts composes one branch of logic. The complete contact command code for these is:
LD
IN1
AND IN2
The lines tell the controller to start a branch with IN1 and with this contact, AND contact IN2. LD commands are terminated with either another LD command or a coil command. In this case, a coil command would terminate because there are no more contacts contained in the ladder. The coil command is STO. The contact and coil commands for this rung of logic are:
LD
IN1
AND IN2
STO OUT1
The STO command tells the controller that the previous logic is to control the coil that follows the STO command. Each line of code must be input into the controller as an individual command. The termination command for a line of code is generally ENTER.
NOTE:

Two types of terminators have been described and should not be confused with each other. Commands are terminated by another command (a software item) while lines are terminated with ENTER (a hardware keyboard key). 5-2

Chapter 5 - Mnemonic Programming Code
The complete command listing for this ladder rung including termination commands is:
LD
IN1 ENTER
AND IN2 ENTER
STO OUT1 ENTER
The commands may be entered using a hand-held programmer, dedicated desktop programmer or a computer containing software that will allow it to operate as a programming device. Each controller command line contains (1) a command, (2) the object of the command and (3) a terminator (the ENTER key). In the case of the first line, LD is the command, IN1 is the object of the command and the ENTER key is the terminator.
Each line of code will typically consume one word of memory, although some of the more complicated commands will consume more than one word. Examples of commands that may consume more than one word of memory are math functions and timers, which will be discussed later.
5-4.

Handling Normally Closed Contacts

Notice that the rung of Figure 5-1 has only normally open contacts and no normally closed contacts. Let us look at how the command lines would change with the inclusion of a normally closed contact in the rung. This is illustrated in Figure 5-2. Notice that normally open contact IN1 of Figure 5-2 has been replaced with normally closed contact
IN1.

Figure 5-2 - Rung With Normally Closed Contact
To indicate a normally closed contact to the PLC, the term NOT is associated with the contact number. This may take different forms in different controllers depending on the program method used by the manufacturer. Using the same form as in the previous example, the command lines for this rung would appear as follows:

5-3

Chapter 5 - Mnemonic Programming Code
LD
NOT IN1
AND IN2
STO OUT1

ENTER
ENTER
ENTER

As stated above, different PLC's may use different commands to perform some functions.
For instance, the Mitsubishi PLC uses the command LDI (LD INVERSE) instead of LD
NOT. This requires a single keystroke instead of two keystrokes to input the same command. If the normally closed contact had been IN2 instead of IN1, the command lines would have to be modified as follows:
LD
IN1
AND NOT IN2
STO OUT1

ENTER
ENTER
ENTER

If using the Mitsubishi PLC, the AND NOT command would be replaced with the ANI (AND
INVERSE) command.
5-5.

OR Ladder Rung
Now, let us translate the ladder of Figure 5-3 into machine code.

Figure 5-3 - Ladder Diagram for OR Function
As can be seen, the contact logic for Figure 5-3 is an OR connection controlling coil
OUT1. Following the same steps as with Figure 5-1, the command lines for this rung are:

5-4

Chapter 5 - Mnemonic Programming Code
LD
IN1 ENTER
OR IN2 ENTER
STO OUT1 ENTER
Notice again each line contains a command, an object and a terminator. In the case of this particular controller, the coil has a descriptive label (OUT) associated with it to tell us that this coil is an output for the controller. In some controllers, this is not the case.
Some controllers designate the coil as output or internal depending upon the number assigned to it. For instance, output coils may be coils having numbers between 100 and
110 and inputs may be contacts having numbers between 000 and 010. Systems that are composed of plug in modules may set the output coil and input contact numbers by the physical location of the modules in the system.
5-6.

Simple Branches

Now consider the ladder diagram of Figure 5-4, a more complicated AND-OR-AND logic containing two branches.

Figure 5-4 - Ladder Diagram AND - OR - AND Function
The previous examples have had only a single branch in each case. A branch may be defined as a single logic expression contained in the overall Boolean expression for a rung.
In the case of Figure 5-4, the Boolean expression would be that of Equation 5-1. As can be seen in the Boolean equation, there are two logic expressions OR'ed together; IN1 AND
IN2 and IN3 AND IN4. Each of the two expressions is called a branch of logic and must be handled carefully when being input into the controller. Incorrect entering of branches will result in improper (possibly dangerous) operation of the PLC. In cases where entering a branch incorrectly violates the controller logic internally, an error message will be generated and the entry disallowed. In cases where the entry does not violate controller logic, operation will be allowed and could cause bodily injury to personnel if the controller is in a position to operate dangerous machinery.
5-5

Chapter 5 - Mnemonic Programming Code

OUT1 = (IN1)(IN2) + (IN3)(IN4)

(5-1)

This configuration of logic in Figure 5-4 utilizes four contacts, IN1, IN2, IN3 and IN4 controlling an output coil OUT1. As discussed in earlier chapters, coil OUT1 will energize when (IN1 AND IN2) OR (IN3 AND IN4) is true. The first line (IN1 AND IN2) is entered in the same manner as described in the previous examples:
(the 1. and 2. are line numbers for our reference only)
1.
2.

LD
IN1
AND IN2

ENTER
ENTER

For the next line (IN3 AND IN4) we must start a new branch. This is accomplished through the use of another LD statement and a portion of PLC memory called the stack.
As program commands for a rung are entered into the PLC they go into what we will call an active memory area. There is another memory area set aside for temporarily storing portions of the commands being input. This area is called the Stack. Each time and LD command is input, the controller transfers all logic currently in the active area to the Stack.
When the first LD command of the rung is input, there is nothing in the active area to transfer to the stack. The next two lines of code would be as follows:
3.
4.

LD
IN3
AND IN4

ENTER
ENTER

The LD command for IN3 causes the previous two lines of code (lines 1 and 2) to be transferred to the Stack. After lines 3 and 4 have been input, lines 1 and 2 will be in the stack and lines 3 and 4 will be in the active memory area.
The two areas, active and the stack, may now be OR'ed with each other using the command OR LD. This tells the controller to retrieve the commands from the stack and OR that code with what is in the active area. The resulting expression is left in the active area.
This line of code would be input as shown below:
5.

OR

LD

ENTER

Up to now, most controllers would have recognized the same type of commands
(AND, OR). The LD and OR LD commands will, however appear differently in various controllers depending upon how the manufacturer wishes to design the controller. For instance, the Allen Bradley SLC-100 handles branches using branch open and branch
5-6

Chapter 5 - Mnemonic Programming Code close commands instead of OR LD. Mitsubishi controllers use OR BLK instead of OR LD.
Some controllers will use STR in place of LD. Also, in some cases all coils may be entered as OUT with an associated number that specifies it as an output or internal coil. The concept is generally the same, but commands vary with controller manufacturer type and even by model in some units.
Adding the coil command for the ladder diagram of Figure 5-4, the commands required are as follows:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

LD
AND
LD
AND
OR
STO

IN1
IN2
IN3
IN4
LD
OUT1

ENTER
ENTER
ENTER
ENTER
ENTER
ENTER

As a matter of comparison, if the above program had been input into a controller that utilizes STR instead of LD and OUT instead of STO, the commands would be as below:
STR
AND
STR
AND
OR
OUT

IN1
IN2
IN3
IN4
STR
101

ENTER
ENTER
ENTER
ENTER
ENTER
ENTER

The 101 associated with the OUT statement designates the coil as number 101, which, in the case of this particular PLC would, by PLC design, cause it to be an internal or output coil as defined by the PLC manufacturer. As can be seen, the structure is the same but with different commands as required by the PLC being used.
Let us now discuss the ladder rung of Figure 5-5. Recall that this is an OR-AND-OR logic rung having a Boolean expression as shown in Equation 5-2.

OUT1 = (IN1+ IN2)(IN3 + IN4)
Two branches can be seen in this expression; (IN1 OR IN2) and (IN3 OR IN4).
These two branches are to be AND'ed together.

5-7

(5-2)

Chapter 5 - Mnemonic Programming Code

Figure 5-5 - Ladder Diagram to Implement OR - AND - OR
Function
Using the LD and STO commands and the same approach as in the examples above, the command structure would be as follows:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

LD
OR
LD
OR
AND
STO

IN1
IN2
IN3
IN4
LD
OUT1

ENTER
ENTER
ENTER
ENTER
ENTER
ENTER

As in the previous example, the LD command in line 3 causes lines 1 and 2 to be transferred to the stack. Line 5 causes the active area and stack to be AND'ed with each other. 5-7.

Complex Branches

Now that we have discussed basic AND and OR techniques and simple branches, let us look at a rung with a more complex logic expression to illustrate how multiple branches would be programmed. Consider the rung of Figure 5-6. As can be seen, there are multiple logic expressions contained in the overall ladder rung. The Boolean expression for this rung is shown in Equation 5-3.

5-8

Chapter 5 - Mnemonic Programming Code

Figure 5-6 - Complex Ladder Rung

OUT1 = ((((IN1+ IN3 + IN8)(IN2 + IN7))
+IN5)( IN 4 + IN 9)) + IN 6

(5-3)

To develop the program commands for this logic, we will begin with the innermost logic expression. This is IN1' + IN3 + IN8'. The commands to enter this expression are:
1.
2.
3.

LD
OR
OR

NOT IN1
IN3
NOT IN8

ENTER
ENTER
ENTER

The next expression to enter is IN2 + IN7', which must be AND'ed with the expression now in the active area. To accomplish this, the logic in the active area must be transferred to the stack, the next expression entered, and then AND'ed with the stack. The command lines for this are:

5-9

Chapter 5 - Mnemonic Programming Code
4.
5.
6.

LD
IN2
OR NOT IN7
AND LD

ENTER
ENTER
ENTER

Line 4 places the previous expression in the stack and begins the new expression and line
5 completes the new expression. Line 6 causes the stack logic to be retrieved and AND'ed with the active area with the result left in the active area. Referring to Equation 5-3 notice that the expression now located in the active area must now be OR'ed with IN5. This is a simple OR command since the first part of the OR is already in the active area. The command to accomplish this is:
7.

OR

IN5

ENTER

Now the active area contains:
{(IN1' + IN3 + IN8') (IN2 + IN7')} + IN5
This must be AND'ed with (IN4 + IN9'). To input this expression we must transfer the logic in the active area to the stack, input the new expression, retrieve the stack and AND it with the expression in the active area. These commands are:
8.
9.
10.

LD
IN4
OR NOT IN9
AND LD

ENTER
ENTER
ENTER

Line 8 transfers the previous expression to the stack and begins input of the new expression, line 9 completes entry of the new expression and line 10 AND's the stack with the new expression. The active area now contains:
(((IN1' + IN3 + IN8') (IN2 + IN7')) + IN5) (IN4 + IN9')
As may be seen in Figure 6-1 - all that remains is to OR this expression with IN6 and add the coil command. The command lines for this are:
11.
12.

OR IN6
STO OUT1

ENTER
ENTER

Combining all the command lines into one set is shown below:

5-10

Chapter 5 - Mnemonic Programming Code
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.

LD
OR
OR
LD
OR
AND
OR
LD
OR
AND
OR
STO

NOT IN1
IN3
NOT IN8
IN2
NOT IN7
LD
IN5
IN4
NOT IN9
LD
IN6
OUT1

ENTER
ENTER
ENTER
ENTER
ENTER
ENTER
ENTER
ENTER
ENTER
ENTER
ENTER
ENTER

The previous example should be reviewed to be sure operation involving the stack is thoroughly understood.

5-11

Chapter 5 - Mnemonic Programming Code
Chapter 5 Review Question and Problems
1.

Draw the ladder diagram and write the mnemonic code for a program that will accept inputs from switches IN1, IN2, IN3, IN4 and IN5 and energize coil
OUT123 when one and only one of the inputs is ON.

2.

Draw the ladder diagram and write the mnemonic code for an oscillator named CR3.

3.

Write the mnemonic code for the J-K Flip Flop.

4.

Draw the ladder diagram, assign contact and coil numbers and write the mnemonic code for a T Flip Flop.

5.

Write the mnemonic code for the ladder diagram of Figure 5-7.

Figure 5-7 - Ladder for Problem 5

5-12

Chapter 6 - Wiring Techniques

Chapter 6 - Wiring Techniques
6-1.

Objectives

Upon completion of this chapter, you will know
” how to provide ac power to a PLC.
” various types of PLC input configurations.
” how to select the best PLC input configuration for an application.
” how to connect external components to PLC inputs.
” various types of PLC output configurations.
” how to select the best PLC output configuration for an application.
” how to connect PLC outputs to external components.
6-2.

Introduction

A very important subject often overlooked in the study of programmable controllers is how to connect the PLC to the system being controlled. This involves connections of such devices as limit switches, proximity detectors, photoelectric detectors, external high current contactors and motor starters, lights and a vast array of other devices which can be utilized with the PLC to control or monitor systems. Wiring a device to the PLC involves the provision of proper power to the devices, sizing of wiring to insure current carrying capacity, routing of wiring for safety and to minimize interference, insuring that all connections are made properly and to the correct terminals, and providing adequate fusing to protect the system.
PLC systems typically involve the handling of circuitry operating at several different voltage and current levels. Power to the PLC and other devices may require the connection of 120 VAC while photoelectric and proximity devices may require 24 VDC.
Motors being controlled by the PLC may operate at much higher voltage levels such as 240 or 480 VAC 3N. Current for photoelectric and proximity devices are in the range of milliamps while motor currents run much higher depending upon the size of the motor - 30 amps or more.
The PLC connections except for main power are confined to connecting inputs to sensing devices and switches and connecting outputs to devices being controlled (lamps, motor starters, contactors). This is the area this chapter will concentrate on since this is the main area of concern for the programmer. We will also touch on the other areas as required while discussing input and output connections.

6-1

Chapter 6 - Wiring Techniques
6-3.

PLC Power Connection

The power requirement for the PLC being used will vary depending upon the model selected. PLC's are available that operate on a wide range of power typically 24 VDC, 120
VAC and 240 VAC. Some manufacturers produce units that will operate on any voltage from 120 VAC to 240 VAC without any modifications to the unit. Connection of power to the DC type units requires that careful attention be paid to insuring that the (+) and (-) power wires are correctly connected. Failure to do so can result in serious damage to the
PLC. Power connection to AC units is not so critical unless the PLC specifications may require specific connection of the hot and neutral wires to the proper terminals. However, no matter which style PLC is being utilized, proper fuses must be inserted in the power line connections to protect both the PLC and the power wiring from overcurrent either from accidental shorts or equipment failure causes. The installation manual for the particular
PLC being used will generally provide fusing information for that unit. The wiring diagram for an AC type PLC is shown in Figure 6-1.

Figure 6-1 - Typical AC Power Wiring
Notice that incoming power is first connected to a disconnect switch. This switch, when turned off, will disconnect all power from the fuses and the PLC. This provides safety for personnel performing maintenance on the system by totally removing power from the
6-2

Chapter 6 - Wiring Techniques system. The neutral conductor is typically grounded at the source. If the neutral is grounded, the portion of the disconnect switch controlling the neutral is not required.
However, if the neutral ground is lost, it would be possible to receive a shock if the neutral wire were touched. For safety, it is always better to totally disconnect power. Two fuses are shown, one for hot and one for neutral. Again, if the neutral is grounded the neutral fuse is not required. However, for the same reason as the disconnect, the second fuse is desirable since it will protect the system against heavy neutral current that could result if the ground is lost. Some discussion of the terms hot and neutral may be required here.
Utility power is generally generated as three phase (3N) voltage. This is accomplished by the wiring scheme in the generator which produces three voltage sources at a phase angle of 120° from each other. The schematic representation of this type of generator is shown in Figure 6-2. Notice that the generator has three windings - the outputs of which are labeled PHASE A, PHASE B and PHASE C. There is also a fourth terminal on the generator labeled NEUTRAL which is connected to the common connection of all three phase terminals. For this discussion, assume we are using 120 VAC 3N. If the generator of Figure 6-2 were producing this voltage, the following voltages would be present. The voltage from any PHASE (A, B or C) to NEUTRAL would be 120 VAC. The voltage between any two phases (PHASE A/PHASE B, PHASE B/PHASE C or PHASE
C/PHASE A) would be 208 VAC. The three PHASE leads are referred to as the HOT leads and the common connection to all three phase windings is referred to as the NEUTRAL lead. In practice, the NEUTRAL connection is connected to earth ground at the generator.
This is true in residential and commercial buildings with 120 VAC power. The NEUTRAL wire in the building is connected to earth ground at the panel where power enters the building. For this reason, if a voltmeter were placed between the NEUTRAL wire and the safety ground wire in any receptacle, the voltage read would be close to or at 0 VAC.
Phase A

Neutral

Phase C

Phase B

Figure 6-2 - 3-Phase Generator
Schematic

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Chapter 6 - Wiring Techniques
In some cases, PLCs are operated from DC power instead of AC power. Figure 6-3 illustrates the power connection for a PLC requiring DC power, in this case, 24 VDC.

Figure 6-3 - Typical DC Power Wiring
This wiring also includes fusing and disconnecting for both power conductors. If the (-) power line is grounded at the source, the (-) disconnect and fuse would not be required.
However, as with the AC power wiring, it is always safer to provide for fusing and disconnection of both power conductors.
Care must be taken to insure that the wiring is properly connected to avoid damage to the equipment and to the personnel coming into contact with it. For this reason, in this chapter, a very simplistic approach will be taken to describe wiring techniques. This may seem insulting to some readers but the hope is that it will explain the wiring requirements thoroughly enough to allow all readers to understand the principles associated with properly connecting the PLC to the system.
To connect power to the PLC, the PLC may be thought of as a lightbulb that needs to be lit; the two power wires are connected to the two wires of the lightbulb and must be insulated from each other. In the case of a PLC operating on DC power, it may be thought of as an LED. For a lightbulb, it doesn't matter which power wire connects to which lightbulb wire; the light will still light up. This is also true for an AC powered PLC. It
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Chapter 6 - Wiring Techniques generally doesn't matter which power wire is connected to the power terminals as long as both are connected and insulated from each other. In the case of the LED, though, the (+) and (-) connections must be made to the proper LED wires and insulated from each other if the LED is to light. The same is true for the DC powered PLC. The difference with the
PLC is that if it is connected wrong, the damage can be very expensive.
6-4.

Input Wiring

The inputs of modern PLCs are generally opto-isolators. An opto-isolator is a device consisting of a light producing element such as an LED and a light sensing element such as a phototransistor. When a voltage is applied to the LED, light is produced which strikes the photo-detector. The photo-detector then provides an output; in the case of a phototransistor, it saturates. The separation of the sensing and output devices in the optoisolator provide the input to the PLC with a high voltage isolation since the only connection between the input terminal and the input to the PLC is a light beam. The light producing element and any current limiting device and protection components determine the input voltage for the opto-isolator. For instance, an LED with a series current limiting resistor could be sized to accept 5 VDC, 24 VDC or 120 VDC. To accept an AC signal, two backto-back LED's with a series current limiting resistor are used. The resistor could be sized to allow the LED to light with 5 VAC, 24 VAC, 120 VAC or 240 VAC or any voltage we desire. PLC manufacturers offer different models having various input voltage specifications. The PLC with the input voltage specification is chosen at the time of purchase. Figure 6-4 shows two types of opto-isolators which are utilized. The DC unit is shown in (a) and the AC unit in (b). The wires from the switch or sensor are connected to the left side of the drawing. The right side of the device is connected internally to the actual
PLC input. Notice that each opto-isolator has a series resistor to limit the device current.
Also notice that the AC unit has back-to-back LED's inside the device so light is produced on both half cycles of the input voltage.

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Chapter 6 - Wiring Techniques

Figure 6-4 - Typical PLC Input Circuit

Since the input to the PLC is an LED, we can visualize the wiring of the input by thinking of it as some type of device controlling a lightbulb and requiring that the input device lights the lightbulb. The input device may be a switch or some type of on/off sensor such as a photosensor or proximity sensor, but the problem is always the same; wire the device so the LED will light when we want the input to be detected as ON. For the DC unit, you can see that the polarity must be observed for the LED to light. In the case of the AC unit, since there is a forward biased LED no matter which way current flows, polarity does not matter. In fact, some manufacturers produce PLC's with AC/DC inputs which are really the AC unit. When using this type of PLC, the polarity of the input, if it is DC, does not matter because one of the LED's will light no matter which polarity voltage is applied.
PLC inputs are configured in one of two ways. In some units all inputs are isolated from each other, that is, there is no common connection between any two inputs. Other units have one side of each input connected to one common terminal. The PLC utilized depends on whether the power for all input devices is common or not. The power supply for the inputs may be either external or internal to the PLC. In low voltage units (24 VDC), a power supply capable of supplying enough current to turn on all inputs will be internal to the PLC. If all inputs will be from switches, no other power supply will be required for the inputs. This internal power supply may not be large enough to also supply any active sensors (photodetectors or proximity detectors) which may be connected. If not, an external supply will have to be obtained. The PLC specification will indicate the capacity of this internal power supply. The internal schematic for the inputs of a PLC having 3 inputs with common connection is shown in Figure 6-5. One can see that all three opto-isolators have one wire connected to the same terminal, the INPUT COM. Also, the wire that is connected to the INPUT COM terminal for each opto-isolator is the negative connection for
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Chapter 6 - Wiring Techniques lighting the LED in the opto-isolator. This means that any device connected to the terminals INPUT 1, INPUT 2 and INPUT 3 must have the opposite end of the device connected to a positive voltage in order to light the LED in the opto-isolator. If more than one power supply is used to power the devices, all of them have to have the negative power lead connected to INPUT COM because that is the only terminal available to connect to the negative input of the opto-isolator.

Figure 6-5 - PLC With Common Inputs
A PLC with isolated inputs is shown in Figure 6-6. Since each input has no connection with any other input, each one may be connected as desired with no concern for power supply interaction. The only requirement is that for the LED in the opto-isolator to light, a positive voltage must be applied to the (+) terminal of the PLC input with respect to the (-) terminal.

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Chapter 6 - Wiring Techniques

Figure 6-6 - PLC With Isolated Inputs
6-5.

Inputs Having a Single Common

Let us now look at the wiring connections required to implement a system in which all inputs have a common power supply. For this type of system a PLC with inputs having a single common connection may be used as shown in Figure 6-5. A system of this type is shown in Figure 6-7.

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Chapter 6 - Wiring Techniques

Figure 6-7 - Non-Isolated Input Wiring

This drawing shows three devices connected to the PLC, a normally open pushbutton (SW1), a normally closed pushbutton (SW2) and a photodetector (OPTO-1).
The system also has two power supplies providing power for the input devices PS1 and
PS2. Notice that the two power supplies have the negative side connected to the INPUT
COM terminal. Let us first look at the connection for normally open pushbutton SW1.
Remember to think of the input in terms of lighting the LED in the opto-isolator. Since the
LED must be forward biased to light, the positive voltage must be applied to the anode of the LED and the negative voltage to the cathode. All three opto-isolators have the cathode lead of the LED connected to the INPUT COM terminal. That means that any power supply used to light the LED's must have the negative lead connected to the INPUT COM terminal.
For that reason, both PS1 and PS2 have the negative lead of the supply connected to the
INPUT COM terminal. With the negative lead of PS1 connected to the cathode of the
INPUT 1 LED, the positive lead of PS1 must be connected to the anode of the INPUT 1
LED. If this were done, the INPUT 1 LED would light and the PLC would accept INPUT 1 as being turned ON. The problem is that INPUT 1 would always be ON. To control this
INPUT, SW1 is placed in series with the positive power supply lead going to INPUT 1. If
SW1 is not being pressed, the switch would be open (remember it is a normally open switch) and no voltage would be applied across the INPUT 1 LED. The LED would not light and the PLC would accept INPUT 1 as being OFF. If SW1 is pressed, the SW1 contacts will close and the positive lead of PS1 will be connected to the anode of the INPUT 1 LED causing the LED to light. This will cause the PLC to accept INPUT 1 as being ON.
INPUT 2 is connected similar to INPUT 1 except that switch SW2 is a normally closed pushbutton. Since it is normally closed if the switch is not being pressed, the positive lead of PS1 will be connected to the INPUT 2 LED, causing it to light. This will
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Chapter 6 - Wiring Techniques cause the PLC to accept INPUT 2 as being ON. When pushbutton switch SW2 is pressed, the normally closed contacts of the switch will open removing power from the INPUT 2
LED. With the LED not lit, the PLC will accept INPUT 2 as being OFF.
INPUT 3 is connected to photodetector OPTO-1. OPTO-1 is a photodetector with an NPN transistor output. In operation, OPTO-1 requires DC power and for that reason
PS2 is connected to the device. Notice that the collector of OPTO-1 is connected to the positive terminal of PS2 and that the emitter is connected to INPUT 3. When light strikes the phototransistor in OPTO-1, the transistor saturates and the resistance from collector to emitter becomes very low. When the transistor saturates, INPUT 3 is pulled to the positive terminal of PS2. This will cause the LED for INPUT 3 to light since it will have positive voltage on the anode and negative on the cathode. When the LED lights, the PLC will accept INPUT 3 as being ON. When no light strikes the phototransistor in OPTO-1, the transistor will shut off presenting a high resistance from collector to emitter. This high resistance will prevent current from flowing in the INPUT 3 LED and the LED will not light.
With the LED not lit, the PLC will accept INPUT 3 as being OFF.
A potential problem exists at INPUT 2. SW2 is a normally closed pushbutton and power is always applied to INPUT 2. If something should happen to power supply PS1, the
PLC would have to assume that SW2 had been pressed since the LED for INPUT 2 would not be lit. For this reason, it is good practice to use normally open switches and other devices to prevent a false decision by the PLC on the condition of the input device.
Figure 6-8 illustrates a system utilizing a PLC with isolated inputs. This system has three power supplies, one for each input device. INPUT 1 is supplied by power supply PS1 with normally open pushbutton switch SW1. The negative terminal of power supply PS1 is connected to the cathode terminal of the opto-isolator for INPUT 1. The positive terminal of PS1 is connected to the anode of the LED for INPUT 1 through SW1. When SW1 is pressed, positive potential is applied to the LED and it lights. The PLC accepts this as
INPUT 1 ON. With the switch SW1 released, the normally open contacts are open and no power is applied to the LED and the PLC accepts INPUT 1 as being OFF.

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Chapter 6 - Wiring Techniques

Figure 6-8 - Isolated Input Wiring

INPUT 2 is connected to normally closed pushbutton switch SW2 and power supply
PS2. In this case however, the positive terminal of PS2 is permanently connected to the anode terminal of the LED for INPUT 2. The cathode lead of the LED is connected to the negative terminal of PS2 through the action of SW2. Since SW2 is normally closed, power will normally be applied to the LED for INPUT 2 and the LED will be lit. This will cause the
PLC to accept INPUT 2 as being ON. When normally closed pushbutton switch SW2 is pressed, power is removed from the LED and it does not light. This causes the PLC to accept INPUT 2 as being OFF. The potential problem noted in the previous paragraph associated with the use of a normally closed switch also exists here.
INPUT 3 is connected as before to a photodetector OPTO-1. However, this time the positive terminal of power supply PS3 is connected directly to the anode of the LED for
INPUT 3. The collector of the phototransistor is connected to the cathode terminal of the
LED and the emitter of the phototransistor is connected to the negative terminal of power supply PS3. With this configuration, when the phototransistor saturates, the cathode of the
LED for INPUT 3 is pulled to the negative terminal of power supply PS3 causing current to flow in the LED. With the LED lit, the PLC will accept INPUT 3 as being ON. When the phototransistor turns off, current through the LED stops flowing and the LED does not light.
This causes the PLC to accept INPUT 3 as being OFF.
Notice that with isolated inputs, wiring can be arranged in different ways to suit different requirements. Generally, inputs have a common terminal and when they are low voltage inputs, the power supply is part of the PLC and external power is not required
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Chapter 6 - Wiring Techniques unless: (1) one of the input devices requires power that is different from the PLC input or
(2) if the current required by the device is more than the PLC can deliver.
Figure 6-9 illustrates the wiring diagram for a system with two normally open pushbutton switches and one photoelectric sensor connected to a PLC with 24 VDC inputs and an internal 24 VDC power supply. The power supply in this case is able to supply enough current to operate all three inputs and power the photoelectric sensor. Notice that the negative output of the internal power supply is connected directly to the INPUT COM of the input unit. The positive terminal of the internal power supply is connected to the two pushbutton switches and the power and collector of the photoelectric sensor. Also, only normally open switches are used to avoid any problems with loss of 24VDC causing an input to be wrongly detected. INPUT 3 is connected to the emitter of the photoelectric sensor to allow the sensor to pull INPUT 3 up when active. This also prevents any problem with loss of power since the collector of the sensor would be open on power loss resulting in the input being OFF. When possible, all inputs should be connected to input devices in such a manner as to cause the inputs to be normally OFF.

Figure 6-9 - Typical PLC Wiring Diagram

6-6.

Output Wiring

PLC outputs are of two general types: (1) relay (2) solid state. Relay outputs are mechanical contacts and solid state outputs may take the form of transistor or TTL logic
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Chapter 6 - Wiring Techniques
(DC) and triac (AC). Relay outputs are usually used to control up to 2 amps or when a very low resistance is required. Transistor outputs are open collector common emitter or emitter follower. This type of output can control lamps and low power DC circuitry such as small
DC relays. TTL logic outputs are available to drive logic circuitry. Triac outputs are used to control low power AC loads such as lighting, motor starters and contactors. As with input units, output units are available with a common terminal and isolated from each other. The type of output unit selected will depend upon the outputs being controlled and the power available for controlling those devices. Typically, power for driving output devices must be separately provided since there can be a wide range of requirements depending upon the device. 6-7.

Relay Outputs

As stated before, relay outputs are normally used to control moderate loads (up to about 2 amps) or when a very low on resistance is required. Refer to Chapter 1 for a description of a relay. Relay contacts are described as three main arrangements or forms.
The three arrangements are FORM A, FORM B and FORM C. A FORM A relay contact is a single pole normally open contact. This is analogous to a single contact normally open switch. The FORM B relay contact is a single pole normally closed contact which is similar to a single normally closed switch. The FORM C relay contact is a single pole double throw contact. The schematic symbols for the three arrangement types are shown in Figure 6-10.

Figure 6-10 - Relay Contact Arrangements
PLC output units are available with all three contact arrangements but typically FORM A and FORM C are used. By specifying a FORM C contact, both FORM A and FORM B can be obtained by using either the normally open portion of the FORM C contact as a FORM
A contact or by using the normally closed portion of the FORM C contact as a FORM B contact. Relay outputs are also available with a common terminal and as isolated contacts.
An output unit with three FORM C contacts having a common terminal is shown in
Figure 6-11. Note in this figure that the common terminal of each of the three relays is connected to one common terminal of the output unit labeled OUTPUT COM. Since all relays have one common terminal, all power supplies (there can be one or several) associated with the outputs to be driven must have one common connection. Note that each output has two labeled outputs, NC (normally closed) and NO (normally open). The
NC and NO have a number following which is the number of the output associated with the terminal. When an output is turned OFF, the OUTPUT COM terminal is connected to the
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Chapter 6 - Wiring Techniques
NC terminal associated with that output. When the output is turned ON, the OUTPUT COM terminal is connected to the associated NO terminal.

Figure 6-11 - Common Relay Output

A typical connection diagram for a relay output unit with three FORM C contacts having common output is shown in Figure 6-12. In this drawing, the power source shown is an AC supply which could be the 120VAC building power. Notice that the wiring of this figure shows lamp LT1 as only lighting when OUTPUT 1 is turned ON. This is because the lamp is connected to the NO terminal for OUTPUT 1. Lamp LT2, however, is connected to the NC terminal for OUTPUT 3. This lamp will be ON whenever OUTPUT 3 is turned
OFF. This means that if the PLC were to lose power, lamp LT2 would light since there
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Chapter 6 - Wiring Techniques would be no power to energize the output relays in the PLC. In the ladder diagram,
OUTPUT 3 could be programmed as an always ON coil. The result would be that while the
PLC was powered and running, lamp LT2 would not be lit. If the PLC lost power lamp LT2 would light and provide the operator with an indication that the PLC had a problem. This method could also be provided as a maintenance tool to allow maintenance to troubleshoot and repair the system faster. Also in the drawing of Figure 6-12, a coil K1 is shown connected to OUTPUT 2. This could be a solenoid which drives a plunger into a slide to lock it in place or it could be the coil of a motor starter used to control power to a motor which requires more current than the relay in the output unit can safely carry. Note that to be used in this situation, the coil K1 would have to be rated for AC use at the voltage available from the AC power source. The wiring of these outputs may each be thought of in terms of a switch controlling a lightbulb. A normally closed switch or a normally open switch may be used. The switch is placed in series with the lightbulb and the power source to control current to the light.

Figure 6-12 - Common Relay Wiring

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Chapter 6 - Wiring Techniques
A PLC relay output unit with three isolated FORM C contacts is shown in
Figure 6-13. In this type output unit, the relay contacts have no connection between them.
These output contacts may be used for any purpose to drive any three output devices with no concern for connection between power sources. Each output has three terminals. The
C terminal is the common terminal of the relay. The NO terminal is the normally open contact and the NC terminal is the normally closed contact of the relay. The NC and NO terminals have a number following them that is the associated output number and the same number is indicated for each C terminal as well as indicating that it is associated with a particular output. As with the common relay output unit of Figure 6-11, the NO contact only closes when the output is ON and the NC contact only opens when the output is ON.

Figure 6-13 - Isolated Relay Output

Figure 6-14 shows a typical system output wiring diagram using an output unit having three FORM C isolated outputs. In Figure 6-14, the three outputs are controlling devices with three different power requirements. OUTPUT 1 is controlling a DC lamp, LT1,
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Chapter 6 - Wiring Techniques which has it's own DC power source. Notice that lamp LT1 will be lit whenever OUTPUT
1 is turned OFF. This could possibly be a fault indicator for the system. Lamp LT2 is an
AC lamp having it's own AC source. LT2 is also lit when OUTPUT 3 is turned OFF. This could be used as a fault indication. OUTPUT 2 is connected to a release valve which has an internal power source and only needs a contact closure to release. In this case, the release valve is connected to the normally closed terminal for OUTPUT 2. This connection provides for the release valve to be in the release condition should the PLC lose power.
This may be the requirement to provide for the machine being in a safe condition in case of system failure. Notice that in the wiring of INPUT 1 and INPUT 3, the wiring provides for a power source, switch and light all in series, with the switch controlling the flow of current to the light.

Figure 6-14 - Isolated Contact Wiring
6-8.

Solid State Outputs

There are several types of solid state outputs available with PLC's. Three popular types are transistor, triac and TTL. All three of these output units will generally have a common terminal although triac output units are available in an isolated configuration.
Transistor output units are usually open collector with the common terminal connected to
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Chapter 6 - Wiring Techniques the emitters of all outputs. A transistor output unit providing three open collector outputs is shown in Figure 6-15. In most, if not all transistor output units, the transistors optically isolated from the PLC. The transistors shown in Figure 6-15 are optically isolated devices.
This unit has all the emitters of the output transistors connected to one common terminal labeled OUTCOM. The transistors contained in this unit are NPN although PNP units are available. There are two different types of transistor units available and they are described as sourcing and sinking. The NPN units are referred to as sinking and the PNP units as sourcing. The unit shown in Figure 6-15 contains sinking outputs. This means that the transistor is configured to sink current to the common terminal, that is, the outputs will have current flow into the terminal.

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Chapter 6 - Wiring Techniques

Figure 6-15 - Transistor Output Unit

A sourcing type output will have current flow out of the terminal. Another way of looking at the difference is that a sinking output will pull the output voltage in a negative direction and the sourcing output will pull the output voltage in a positive direction. The sourcing and sinking description conforms to conventional current flow from positive to negative. A sourcing transistor output unit is shown in Figure 6-16. Notice that the transistors used are PNP type and that the common terminal would have to be connected
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Chapter 6 - Wiring Techniques to the positive terminal of the power supply for the transistor to be properly biased. This will cause the outputs to be pulled in a positive direction when the transistor is turned ON
(a sourcing output).

Figure 6-16 - Transistor Sourcing Output
A wiring diagram for a transistor sinking output unit is shown in Figure 6-17. This diagram shows three output devices connected to the output unit. Lamp LT1 will light when
OUTPUT 1 turns ON since the output transistor will saturate when the output turns ON.
The saturated transistor will sink current to the OUTCOM terminal causing current to flow
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Chapter 6 - Wiring Techniques in the lamp. OUT2 is connected to a coil K1. This could be a solenoid or relay. This device will be energized when OUTPUT 2 is turned ON causing the output transistor to saturate. Notice that a diode, CR1, is connected across K1 in such a manner as to be normally reverse biased. This diode prevents excessive voltage buildup across K1 when the output transistor turns OFF. When the output transistor turns OFF and the magnetic field in the coil begins to collapse, a voltage in opposition to the applied voltage is developed. Unchecked, this voltage could be as high as several hundred volts. A voltage this high would quickly destroy the output transistor. The voltage is not allowed to build up because the current developed by the collapsing field is shunted through the diode.
Transistor output units now generally have this diode built into the output unit for protection.
Also, some relays are manufactured with this diode installed. Notice, too, that the diagram of Figure 6-17 includes two separate power sources, one providing power for LT1 and the other providing power for K1 and LT2. This is a typical situation since there may be occasions when devices connected to the output unit operate at different voltages. In this case, LT1 could be a 5 volt lamp and LT2 and K1 could be 24 volt devices. The only requirement is that the two power supplies (PS1 and PS2) must have a common negative terminal that is connected to the OUTCOM terminal.

Figure 6-17 - Transistor Output Wiring

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Chapter 6 - Wiring Techniques
Figure 6-18 contains the schematic drawing for a triac output unit. All output triacs have one common terminal which will be connected to one side of the AC power source providing power for the output devices being controlled. Each triac is triggered when the output associated with it is turned ON. There are units available that have zero crossover networks built in to provide for noise reduction by only allowing the triac to turn ON at the time the power signal crosses through zero volts. Noise and current spikes can be generated when the triac turns ON if the AC voltage is at some voltage other than zero since the voltage to the output device being controlled will instantly go from zero with the triac OFF to whatever the AC value of the voltage is at turn-on. If the triac turns ON at the time the AC voltage is passing through zero volts, no such spikes will be produced. Notice that the triac outputs shown in Figure 6-18 are optically isolated from the PLC. This allows the PLC to control very high voltage levels (120 - 240 VAC) with isolation of these voltages from the low voltage circuitry of the PLC.

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Chapter 6 - Wiring Techniques

Figure 6-18 - Triac Output Unit
Figure 6-19 contains the wiring diagram for a triac output unit. As can be seen in the diagram, the common terminal for the triacs is connected to one side of the AC source powering the output devices controlled by the unit. Output units are available with different voltage and current ratings. The devices being controlled by the output unit shown in
Figure 6-19 look the same as the ones in Figure 6-17. The difference is that all devices in
Figure 6-17 are DC units and all devices in Figure 6-19 operate on AC. Also notice that the diode across K1 is not present in the triac output unit drawing. This is because the triac
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Chapter 6 - Wiring Techniques turns OFF when the applied current crosses through zero volts. The result is that either a very small magnetic field is present or no magnetic field is present when the triac turns OFF and the voltage spike present in a DC system is not generally a problem. This can still be a problem if the coil is highly inductive because the voltage and current will be so far out of phase that some voltage will still be present when the current crosses zero. In this case a series combination of resistance and capacitance is connected in parallel with the coil.
This series R-C circuit is referred to as a snubber. The terminal of the AC source generally connected to the common terminal of the output unit is the neutral lead of the source.

Figure 6-19 - Triac Output Wiring
Figure 6-20 shows the schematic diagram of an output unit containing three TTL outputs. Notice that these outputs are also optically isolated. In some cases these may be direct and not optically isolated but the isolated units provide better protection for the
PLC. The outputs of the TTL unit have a common terminal (OUTCOM) which must be connected to the negative terminal of the power supply for the external TTL devices being driven by the output unit. Some TTL output units require that the 5 VDC power for the output circuitry be connected to the output unit to also provide power for it's internal TTL circuitry. The connection of these outputs to external TTL circuitry would be the same as
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Chapter 6 - Wiring Techniques with any other TTL connections. The only concern with these outputs is that various PLC manufacturers specify the outputs as positive or negative logic. How this is handled in the ladder diagram will be affected by this specification.

Figure 6-20 - TTL Output Unit
As can be seen from the above discussion of input and output units, there are a large variety of options available. Wiring for each type of unit is critical to the unit's proper operation. Much care must be taken to insure proper operation of the output or input unit without causing damage. Also, there are safety concerns which must be addressed when
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Chapter 6 - Wiring Techniques planning and implementing the wiring of the system to provide for a system that will not be a hazard to the people operating and maintaining it.

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Chapter 6 - Wiring Techniques
Chapter 6 Review Questions and Problems
1.

Draw the input wiring diagram for a PLC system using a 24 VDC input unit with the following inputs:
IN1 IN2 IN3 IN4 -

Normally open pushbutton ON switch
Normally open pushbutton OFF switch
Normally closed selector switch labeled STEP 1 / STEP 2
Normally open footswitch

Show all switches using the correct drawing symbol and show all devices including the power supply. The PLC being used does not hav an internal
24VDC power supply.
2.

If one terminal of a lamp is connected directly to the negative terminal of the power supply, what kind of transistor output unit will be required (sourcing or sinking) to allow the PLC to light the lamp?

3.

The negative lead of a power supply is connected directly to one lead of a coil. Draw the wiring diagram for the proper connection of the coil to a transistor output unit. Also, show the spike protection diode across the coil.

4.

Using a relay output unit with one FORM C contact driven from OUTPUT 1, draw the wiring diagram for a system with two AC powered lamps, one that will light when OUTPUT 1 is ON and one that will light when OUTPUT 1 is
OFF.

5.

Draw the wiring diagram for a system combining the requirements of problems 1, 2 and 3 above utilizing one power source wheich is not part of the PLC.

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Chapter 7 - Analog I/O

Chapter 7 - Analog I/O
7-1.

Objectives

Upon completion of this chapter, you will know
” the operations performed by analog-to-digital (A/D) and digital-to-analog (D/A) converters. ” some of the terminology used to describe analog converter performance parameters. ” how to select a converter for an application.
” the difference between a unipolar and bipolar converter.
” some common problems encountered with analog converter applications.
7-2.

Introduction

Although most of the operations performed by a PLC are either discrete I/O or register I/O operations, there are some situations that require the PLC to either monitor an analog voltage or produce an analog voltage. As example of an analog monitoring function, consider a PLC that is monitoring the wind speed in a wind tunnel. In this situation, an air flow sensor is used that outputs a DC voltage that is proportional to wind speed. This voltage is then connected to an analog input (also called A/D input) on the
PLC. As an example of an analog control function, consider an AC variable frequency motor drive (called a VFD). This is an electronic unit that produces an AC voltage with a variable frequency. When connected to a 3-phase AC induction motor, it can operate the motor at speeds other than rated speed. VFD’s are generally controlled by a 0-10 volt DC analog input with zero volts corresponding to zero speed and 10 volts corresponding to rated speed. PLCs can be used to operate a VFD by connecting the analog output (also called D/A output) of the PLC to the control input of the VFD.
Analog input and output values are generally handled by the PLC as register operations. Input and output transfers are usually done at update time. Internally, the values can be manipulated mathematically and logically under ladder program control.
7-3.

Analog (A/D) Input

Analog inputs to PLCs are generally done using add-on modules which are extra cost items. Few PLCs have analog input as a standard feature. Analog inputs are available in unipolar (positive input voltage capability) or bipolar (plus and minus input voltage capability). Standard off-the-shelf unipolar analog input modules have ranges of
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Chapter 7 - Analog I/O
0-5 VDC and 0-10 VDC, while standard bipolar units have ranges of -5 to +5 VDC and
-10 to +10 VDC.
Specifying an Analog Input
There are basically three characteristics that need to be considered when selecting an analog input. They are as follows.
Unipolar (positive only) or bipolar (plus and minus)
This is a simple decision. If the voltage being measured cannot be negative, then a unipolar input is the best choice. It is not economical to purchase a bipolar input to measure a unipolar signal.
Input range
This is relatively simple also. For this specification, you will need to know the type of output from the sensor, system, or transducer being measured. If you expect a signal greater then 10 volts, purchase a 10 volt input and divide the voltage to be measured using a simple resistive voltage divider (keep in mind that, if necessary, you can restore the value in software by a simple multiplication operation). If you know the measured voltage will never exceed 5 volts, avoid purchasing a 10 volt converter because you will be paying extra for the unused additional range.
Number of Bits of Resolution
The resolution of an A/D operation determines the number of digital values that the converter is capable of discerning over its range. As an example, consider an analog input with 4 bits of resolution and a 0-10 volt range. With 4 bits, we will have 16 voltage steps, including zero. Therefore, zero volts will convert to binary 0000 and the converter will divide the 10 volt range into 16 increments. It is important to understand that with four binary bits, the largest number that can be provided is 11112 or 1510. Therefore, the largest voltage that can be represented by a 10 volt 4-bit converter is 10 / 16 * 15 = 9.375 volts.
In other words, our 10 volt converter is incapable of measuring 10 volts. All converters are capable of measuring a maximum voltage that is equal to the rated voltage (sometimes called VREF) times (2n-1)/(2n), where n is the number of bits. Since our converter divides the
10 volt range into 16 equal parts, each step will be 10/16=0.625 volt. This means that a binary value of 0001 (the smallest increment) will correspond to 0.625 volt. This is called the voltage resolution of the converter. Sometimes we refer to resolution as the number of bits the converter outputs, which is called the bit resolution. Our example converter has a bit resolution of 4 bits. It is important to remember that the bit resolution (and voltage resolution) of an A/D converter determines the smallest voltage increment that the converter can determine. Therefore, it is important to be able to properly specify the
7-2

Chapter 7 - Analog I/O converter. If we use a converter with too few bits of resolution, we will not be able to correctly measure the input value to the degree of precision needed. Conversely, if we specify too many bits of resolution, we will be spending extra money for unnecessary resolution. For a unipolar converter, the voltage resolution is the full scale voltage divided by 2 , where n is the bit resolution. As a rule of thumb, you should select a converter with a voltage resolution that is approximately 25% or less of the desired resolution.
Increasing the bit resolution makes the voltage resolution smaller. n Consider the table below for a 4 bit 10 volt unipolar converter.
Step10

Step2

Vout

0

0000

0.000

1

0001

0.625

2

0010

1.250

3

0011

1.875

4

0100

2.500

5

0101

3.125

6

0110

3.750

7

0111

4.375

8

1000

5.000

9

1001

5.625

10

1010

6.250

11

1011

6.875

12

1100

7.500

13

1101

8.125

14

1110

8.750

15

1111

9.375

The leftmost column shows the sixteen discrete steps that the converter is capable of resolving, 0 through 15. The middle column shows the binary value. The rightmost column
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Chapter 7 - Analog I/O shows the corresponding voltage which is equal to the step times the rated voltage times
(2n-1)/(2n). For our converter, this will be the step times 10 volts x 15/16. Again, notice that even though this is a 10 volt converter, the highest voltage that it can convert is 9.375 volts, which is one step below 10 volts.
Example Problem:
A temperature sensor outputs 0-10 volts DC for a temperature span of
0-100 degrees C. What is the bit resolution of a PLC analog input that will digitize a temperature variation of 0.1 degree C?
Solution:
Since, for the sensor, 10 volts corresponds to 100 degrees, the sensors outputs
10V / 100 degrees = 0.1 volt/degree C. Therefore, a temperature variation of 0.1 degree would correspond to 0.01 volt, or 10 millivolts from the sensor. Using our rule of thumb, we would need an analog input with a voltage resolution of
10 mV x 25% = 2.5 mV (or less) and an input range of 0-10 volts. This means the converter will need to divide its 0-10 volt range into 10 V / 2.5 mV = 4000 steps. To find the bit resolution we find the smallest value of n that solves the inequality
2n>4000. The smallest value of n that will satisfy this inequality is n=12, where
2n = 4096. Therefore, we would need a 12-bit 10 volt analog input. Now we can find the actual resolution by solving for a 12-bit 10 volt converter. The resolution would be 10v / 212 = 2.44 mV. This voltage step would correspond to a temperature variation of 0.0244 degree. This means that the digitized value will be within plus or minus 0.144 degree of the actual temperature.
Determining the number of bits of resolution for bipolar uses a similar method.
Bipolar converters generally utilize what is called an offset binary system. In this system, all binary zeros represents the largest negative voltage and all binary ones represents the largest positive voltage minus one bit-resolution. To illustrate, assume we have an A/D converter with a range of -10 volts to +10 volts and a bit resolution of 8 bits. Since the overall range is 20 volts, the voltage resolution will be 20 volts / 28 = 78.125 mV. Therefore, the converter will equate 000000002 to -10 volts and 111111112 will become
+10 V - 0.078125 V = 9.951875 V. Keep in mind that this will make the binary number
100000002, or 12810 (called the half-range value) be -10 V + 128 x 78.125 mV = 0.000 V.
Consider the table below for a 4 bit 10 volt unipolar converter.

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Chapter 7 - Analog I/O
Step10

Step2

Vout

0

0000

-10.000

1

0001

-8.750

2

0010

-7.500

3

0011

-6.250

4

0100

-5.000

5

0101

-3.750

6

0110

-2.500

7

0111

-1.250

8

1000

0.000

9

1001

1.250

10

1010

2.500

11

1011

3.750

12

1100

5.000

13

1101

6.250

14

1110

7.500

15

1111

8.750

The leftmost column shows the sixteen discrete steps that the converter is capable of resolving, 0 through 15. The middle column shows the binary value. The rightmost column shows the corresponding voltage which is equal to the step times the voltage span times
(2n-1)/(2n). For our converter, this will be the step times 20 volts x 15/16. Notice that digital zero corresponds to -10 volts, the half value point 10002 corresponds to zero volts, and the highest voltage that it can convert is 8.750 volts, which is one step below +10 volts.
It is important to understand that expanding the span of the converter (span is the voltage difference between the minimum and maximum voltage capability of the converter) to cover both positive and negative voltages increases the value of the voltage resolution which in turn detracts from the precision of the converter. For example, an 8-bit 10 volt unipolar converter has a voltage resolution of 10 / 28 = 39.0625 mV while an 8-bit bipolar
10 volt converter has voltage resolution of 20 / 28 = 78.125 mV.
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Chapter 7 - Analog I/O
Example Problem:
A 10-bit bipolar analog input has an input range of -5 to +5 volts. If the converter outputs the binary number 01101111012 what is the voltage being read?
Solution:
First we find the voltage resolution of the converter. Since the span is 10 volts, the resolution is 10 / 210 = 9.7656 mV. Next we convert the output binary number to decimal
(01101111012 = 44510) and multiply it by the resolution to get 10 / 210 x 445 = 4.3457 V.
Finally, since the converter uses offset binary, we subtract 5 volts from the result to get
4.3457 V -5 V = -0.6543 V.
The impedance of the source of the voltage to be measured must also be a consideration. However, this factor usually does not affect the selection of the analog input because generally all analog inputs are high impedance (1 Megohm or higher). Therefore, if the source impedance is also high, the designer should exercise caution to make sure the analog input does not load the source and create a voltage divider. This will cause an error in the reading. As a simple example, assume the voltage to be read has a source impedance of 1 Megohm and the analog input also has an impedance of 1 Megohm. This means that the analog input will only read half the voltage because the other half will be dropped across the source impedance. Ideally, a 1000:1 or higher ratio between the analog input impedance and the source impedance is desirable. Any lower ratio will cause a significant error in the measurement. Fortunately, since most analog sensors utilize operational amplifier outputs, the source impedance will generally be extremely low and loading error will not be a problem.

7-4.

Analog (D/A) Output

When selecting an analog output for a PLC, most of the same design considerations are used as is done with the analog input. Most analog outputs are available in unipolar
0 to 5 V and 0 to 10 V, and in bipolar -5 to +5 V and -10 to +10 V systems. The methods for calculating bit resolution and voltage resolution is the same as for analog inputs, so the selection process is very similar.
However, one additional design consideration that must be investigated when applying an analog output is load impedance. Most D/A converters use operational amplifiers as their output amplifiers. Therefore, the maximum current capability of the converter is the same as the output current capability of the operational amplifier, typically about 25 mA. In most cases, a simple ohm’s law calculation will indicate the lowest impedance value that the D/A converter is capable of accurately driving.

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Chapter 7 - Analog I/O
Example Problem:
A 12-bit 10 volt bipolar analog output has a maximum output current capability of 20 mA. It is connected to a load that has a resistance of 330 ohms. Will this system work correctly? Solution:
If the converter were to output it’s highest magnitude of voltage, which is -10 volts, the current would be 10 V / 330 ohms = 30.3 mA. Therefore, in this application, the converter would go into current limiting mode for any output voltage greater than
20 mA x 330 ohms = 6.6 V (of either polarity).
7-5.

Analog Data Handling

As mentioned earlier, analog I/O is generally handled internally to the PLC as register values. For most PLCs the values can be mathematically manipulated using software math operations. For more powerful PLCs, these can be done in binary, octal, decimal or hexadecimal arithmetic. However, in the lower cost PLCs, the PLC may be limited in the number systems it is capable of handling, so designer may be forced to work in a number system other then decimal. When this occurs, simple conversions between the PLC’s number system and decimal will allow the designer to verify input values and program output values.
Example Problem:
An voltage of 3.500 volts is applied to an 8-bit 5 volt unipolar analog input of a PLC.
Using monitor software, the PLC analog input register shows a value of 2638. Is the analog input working correctly?
Solution:
First, convert 2638 to decimal. It would be 2 x 82 + 6 x 81 + 3 x 80 = 179. For an 8-bit
5 volt unipolar converter, 179 would correspond to 179 x 5 / 28 = 3.496 volts. Since the resolution is 5 / 28 = 0.0195 volts, the result is within ½ of a bit and is therefore correct.
7-6.

Analog I/O Potential Problems

After installing an analog input system, it sometimes becomes apparent that there are problems. Generally these problems occur in analog inputs and fall into three categories, a constant offset error, percentage offset error, or an unstable reading.

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Chapter 7 - Analog I/O
Constant Offset Error
Constant offset errors appear as an error in which you find that the correct values always differ from the measured values by an additive (or subtractive) constant. It is also accompanied by a zero error (where zero volts is not measured as zero). Although there are many potential causes for this, the most common is that the analog input is sharing a ground circuit with some other device. The other device is drawing significant current through the ground such that a voltage drop appears on the ground conductor. Since the analog input is also using the ground, the voltage drop appears as an additional analog input. This problem can be avoided by making sure that all analog inputs are 2-wire inputs and both of the wires extend all the way to the source. Also, the negative (-) wire of the pair should only be grounded at one point (called single point grounding). Care should be taken here because many analog sensors have a negative (-) output wire that is grounded inside the sensor. This means that if you ground the negative wire at the analog input also, you will create the potential for a ground loop with its accompanying voltage drop and analog input error.
Percentage Offset Error
This type of error is also called gain error. This is apparent when the measured value can be corrected by multiplying it by a constant. It can be caused by a gain error in the analog input, a gain error in the sensor output, or most likely, loading effect caused by interaction between the output resistance of the sensor and the input resistance of the analog input. Also, if a resistive voltage divider is used on the input to reduce a high voltage to a voltage that is within the range of the analog input, an error in the ratio of the two resistors will produce this type of problem.
Unstable Reading
This is also called a noisy reading. It appears in cases where the source voltage is stable, but the measured value rambles, usually around the correct value. It is usually caused by external noise entering the system before it reaches the analog input. There are numerous possible reasons for this; however, they are all generally caused by electromagnetic or electrostatic pickup of noise by the wires connecting the signal source to the analog input. When designing a system with analog inputs (or troubleshooting a system with this type of problem), remember that the strength of an electromagnetic field around a current carrying wire is directly proportional to the current being carried by the wire and the frequency of that current. If an analog signal wire is bundled with or near a wire carrying high alternating currents or high frequency signals, it is likely that the analog signal wires will pickup electrical noise. There are some standard design practices that will help reduce or minimize noise pickup.
7-8

Chapter 7 - Analog I/O
1.

For the analog signal wiring, use twisted pair shielded cable. The twisted pair will cause electromagnetic interference to appear equally in both wires which will be cancelled by the differential amplifier at the analog input. The copper braid shield will supply some electromagnetic shielding and excellent electrostatic shielding. To prevent currents from circulating in the shield, ground the shield only on one end.

2.

Use common sense when routing analog cables. Tying them into a bundle with AC line or controls wiring, or routing the analog wires near high current conductors or sources of high electromagnetic fields (such as motors or transformers) is likely to cause problems.

3.

If all else fails, route the analog wires inside steel conduit. The steel has a high magnetic permeability and will shunt most if not all interference from external magnetic fields around the wires inside, thereby shielding the wires.

7-9

Chapter 7 - Analog I/O
Chapter 7 Review Question and Problems
1.

What is the voltage resolution of a 10-bit unipolar 5 volt analog input?

2.

How many bits would be needed for an analog output if, after applying the
25% rule of thumb, we need a resolution of 4.8 millivolts for a signal that has a range of 0 to +10 volts?

4.

An 8-bit bipolar 5 volt analog input has an input of -3.29 volts. What will be the decimal value of the number the converter sends to the CPU in the PLC?

5.

You program a PLC to output the binary number 10110101 to its analog output. The analog output is 8-bits, 10 volts, bipolar. What DC voltage do you expect to see on the output.

6.

An AC motor controller has a frequency control input of 0-10 volts DC which varies the output frequency from 0-60Hz. It drives a 3-phase induction motor that is rated at 1750 RPM at 60 Hz. The DC input to the motor controller is provided by an analog output from a PLC. The analog output is unipolar, 10 volts, 10 bits. What binary number must you program into the PLC to cause it to output the appropriate voltage to run the motor at 1000 RPM (assume for the motor that the relationship between frequency and speed is a simple ratio)? 7.

A pressure sensor is rated at 0-500 psi and has an output range of 0-10 volts
DC (10 volts corresponds to 500 psi). It is connected to a PLC’s analog input that is 10 bits, 10 volts, unipolar. If the PLC reads the analog input as 8B316, what is the pressure in psi?

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Chapter 8 - Discrete Position Sensors

Chapter 8 - Discrete Position Sensors
8-1.

Objectives

Upon completion of this chapter, you will know
” the difference between a discrete sensor and an analog sensor.
” the theory of operation of inductive, capacitive, ultrasonic, and optical proximity sensors. ” which types of proximity sensors are best suited for particular applications.
” how to select and specify proximity sensors.
8-2.

Introduction

Generally, when a PLC is designed into a machine control system, it is not simply put into an open loop system. This would be a system in which the PLC provides outputs, but never “looks” to see if the machine is responding to those outputs. Instead, PLCs are generally put into a closed loop system. This is a system in which the PLC monitors the performance of the machine and provides the appropriate outputs at the correct times to make the machine operate properly, efficiently, and intelligently. In order to provide the
PLC with a sense of what is happening within the machine, we use sensors.
In a way, a limit switch is a sensor. The switch senses when its actuator is being pressed and sends an electrical signal to the PLC input. The limit switch provides the PLC with a crude sense of touch. However, in many cases, the PLC needs to sense something more sophisticated than a switch actuation. For these applications, sensors are available that can sense nearly any parameter that may occur in a machine environment.
This text has by no means a comprehensive coverage of all the currently available sensor technology. Because of uses of lasers, chroma recognition, image recognition, and other newer technologies, the state of sensor sophistication and variety of sensors is constantly evolving. Because of this rapid evolution, even experienced designers find it difficult to keep pace with sensor technology. Generally, machine controls and automation designers rely on manufacturer’s sales representatives to keep them abreast of newly developing technologies. In many cases a visit by a sales representative to view and discuss the potential sensor application will result in suggestions, catalogs, on-site demonstrations of sample units, and, if necessary, phone contact with a vendor’s field engineer to further discuss the application. This network of sales representatives and applications engineers should not be ignored by the designer - they are a valuable resource. In fact, most of the material covered in this and subsequent chapters is provided by manufacturer’s sales representatives.
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Chapter 8 - Discrete Position Sensors
8-3.

Sensor Output Classification

Fundamentally, sensor outputs are classified into two categories - discrete
(sometimes called digital, logic, or bang-bang) and proportional (sometimes called analog). Discrete sensors provide a single logical output (a zero or one). For example, a thermostat that operates the heating and air conditioning in a home is a discrete sensor.
When the room temperature is below the thermostat’s setpoint, it outputs a zero, and when the temperature rises so that it is above the setpoint, the thermostat switches on and provides a logical one output. It is important to remember that discrete sensors do not provide information about the current value of the parameter being sensed. It only decides if the parameter being sensed is above or below the setpoint. Again, using the thermostat example, if the thermostat is set for 70 degrees and it is off, all that can be concluded is that he room temperature is below 70 degrees. The room temperature could be 69 degrees, minus 69 degrees, or any other value below 70 degrees, and the thermostat will give the same logical zero output.
The schematic symbol for the discrete sensor is shown as a limit switch in a diamond shaped box. This is shown in Figure 8-1. Since this is a generic designation, we usually write a short description of the sensor type next to the symbol.

(a)

(b)

Figure 8-1 - Sensor Schematic Symbol
Proportional sensors, on the other hand, provide an analog output. The output may be a voltage, current, resistance, or even a digital word containing a discrete value. In any case, the sensor measures the value of the parameter, converts it to a signal that is proportional to the value, and outputs that value. When proportional sensors are used with
PLCs, they are generally connected to analog inputs on the PLC instead of the digital inputs. An example of a proportional sensor is the fluid level sending unit in the fuel tank of an automobile that sends a signal to operate the fuel level gage. This is generally a potentiometer in the fuel tank that is operated by a float. As the fuel level changes, the float adjusts the potentiometer and its resistance changes. The fuel gage is nothing more than an ohmmeter that indicates the resistance of the fuel level sensor.
For discrete sensors, there are two types of outputs, the NPN or sinking output, and the PNP or sourcing output. The NPN or sinking output has an output circuit that functions similar to a TTL open collector output. It can be regarded as an NPN bipolar transistor with
8-2

Chapter 8 - Discrete Position Sensors a grounded emitter and an uncommitted collector, as shown in Figure 8-2. In reality, this output circuit could be composed of an actual NPN transistor, an FET, an opto-isolator, or even a relay or switch contact. However, no matter how the output circuitry is composed, in operation it presents either an open circuit or a grounded line for its two output logical signals. Vcc

Output
Proximity
Sensor
Circuitry
Gnd

Figure 8-2 - Sensor with NPN Output
Although at first this may seem rather convoluted and confusing, there is a specific application for an output circuit such as this. Since one of the logical states of the output is an open circuit, it can be used to drive loads that are outside of the power supply range of the sensor. This means that it is capable of operating a load that is being powered from a separate power supply, as shown in Figure 8-3. For example, it is relatively easy to have a sensor that requires a +10 vdc power supply (Vsensor) operate a load operating from +24 vdc (Vload). Of course, it is also permissible to operate the NON output from the same power supply as the sensor. Typically, sensors with NPN outputs are capable of controlling load voltages up to 30 vdc. The power supply for the load can be any voltage between zero and the maximum collector voltage specified for the output transistor.
Sensor
Vcc

Output
Proximity
Sensor
Circuitry

Load

Vload

Gnd

Figure 8-3 - NPN Sensor Load Connection
8-3

Vsensor

Chapter 8 - Discrete Position Sensors
The PNP or sourcing output, has output logic levels that switch between the sensor’s power supply voltage and an open circuit. In this case, as illustrated in Figure 8-4, the PNP output transistor has the emitter connected to Vcc and the collector uncommitted. When the output is connected to a grounded load, the transistor will cause the load voltage to be either zero (when the transistor is off) or approximately Vcc (when the transistor is on).
Vcc
Proximity
Sensor
Circuitry

Output

Gnd

Figure 8-4 - Sensor with PNP Output
This is ideal for supplying loads that have power supply requirements that are the same as that of the sensor, and one of the two connection wires of the load is already connected to ground. Notice in Figure 8-5 that this allows a simpler design because only one power supply is needed. However, the disadvantage in this type of circuit is that the sensor and the load must be selected so that they operate from the same supply voltage.
Vcc
Proximity
Sensor
Circuitry

Output

Load
Vcc

Gnd

Figure 8-5 - PNP Sensor Load Connection

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Chapter 8 - Discrete Position Sensors

8-4.

Connecting Discrete Sensors to PLC Inputs

Since discrete PLC inputs can be either sourcing or sinking, it is important to know how to select the sensor output type that will properly interface with the PLC input, and how to wire the PLC input so that it will interface to the sensor correctly. Generally speaking, sensors with sourcing (PNP) outputs should be connected to sinking PLC inputs, and sensors with sinking (NPN) outputs should be connected to sourcing PLC inputs. Connecting sourcing sensor outputs to sourcing PLC inputs, or sinking outputs to sinking inputs, will result in erratic illogical operation at best, or most likely, a system that will not function at all.
For sourcing (PNP) sensor outputs, the PLC input circuit is wired with the common terminal connected to the common of the sensor as shown in Figure 8-6. When the PNP transistor in the sensor is off, no current flows between the sensor and the PLC, and the
PLC input will be OFF. When the sensor circuitry switches the PNP transistor ON, current flows from the Vcc power supply, through the PNP transistor, through the IN0 opto-isolator in the PLC input, and out of the common terminal to return to the negative side of the power supply. In this case, the PLC input will be ON. For this type of connection, the value of the
Vcc voltage must be at least high enough to satisfy the minimum input voltage requirement for the PLC inputs. Notice the simplicity of the connection scheme. The sensor connects directly to the PLC input. No other external signal conditioning circuitry is required.
IN3

IN2

Vcc
Proximity
Sensor
Circuitry

IN1

Output

Programmable
Logic
Controller
Discrete
Inputs

IN0
Vcc

Gnd

COM

Sensor

Figure 8-6 - Sourcing Sensor Output Connected to a Sinking PLC Input
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Chapter 8 - Discrete Position Sensors
We can also connect a sinking (NPN) sensor output to the same PLC input.
However, since the sensor has a sinking output, the PLC must be rewired as a sourcing input. This can be done by disconnecting the common terminal of the PLC input from the negative side of Vcc and instead connecting it to the positive side of Vcc as shown in
Figure 8-7. This connection scheme converts all of the PLC inputs to sourcing; that is, in order to switch the PLC input ON, we must draw current out of the input terminal. In operation, when the NPN transistor in the sensor is OFF, no current flows between the sensor and PLC. However, when the NPN transistor switches ON, current will flow from the positive side of the Vcc supply, into the common terminal of the PLC, up through the opto-isolator, out of the PLC input terminal IN0 and through the NPN transistor to ground.
This will switch the PLC input ON. If it is necessary to operate the PLC inputs and the sensor from separate power supplies, it is permissible as long as the negative terminal of both power supplies are connected together.
IN3

IN2

Vcc

IN1

Output

Programmable
Logic
Controller
Discrete
Inputs

IN0

Proximity
Sensor
Circuitry

Vcc
Gnd

COM

Sensor

Figure 8-7 - Sinking Sensor Output Connected to a Sourcing PLC Input

8-5.

Proximity Sensors

Proximity sensors are discrete sensors that sense when an object has come near to the sensor face. There are four fundamental types of proximity sensors, the inductive proximity sensor, the capacitive proximity sensor, the ultrasonic proximity sensor, and the optical proximity sensor. In order to properly specify and apply proximity sensors, it is important to understand how they operate and to which applications each is best suited.
8-6

Chapter 8 - Discrete Position Sensors
Inductive Proximity Sensors
As with all proximity sensors, inductive proximity sensors are available in various sizes and shapes as shown in Figure 8-8. As the name implies, inductive proximity sensors operate on the principle that the inductance of a coil and the power losses in the coil vary as a metallic (or conductive) object is passed near to it. Because of this operating principle, inductive proximity sensors are only used for sensing metal objects. They will not work with non-metallic materials.

Figure 8-8 - Samples of Inductive Proximity Sensors
(Pepperl & Fuchs, Inc.)

To understand how inductive proximity sensors operate, consider the cutaway block diagram shown in Figure 8-9. Mounted just inside the face of the sensor (on the left end) is a coil which is part of the tuned circuit of an oscillator. When the oscillator operates, there is an alternating magnetic field (called a sensing field) produced by the coil. This magnetic field radiates through the face of the sensor (which is non-metallic). The oscillator circuit is tuned such that as long as the sensing field senses non-metallic material (such as air) it will continue to oscillate, it will trigger the trigger circuit, and the output switching device (which inverts the output of the trigger circuit) will be off. The sensor will therefore
8-7

Chapter 8 - Discrete Position Sensors send an “off” signal through the cable extending from the right side of the sensor in
Figure 8-9.

Figure 8-9 - Inductive Proximity Sensor
Internal Components
(Pepperl & Fuchs, Inc.)
When a metallic object (steel, iron, aluminum, tin, copper, etc.) comes near to the face of the sensor, as shown in Figure 8-10, the alternating magnetic field in the target produces circulating eddy currents inside the material. To the oscillator, these eddy currents are a power loss. As the target moves nearer, the eddy current loss increases which loads the output of oscillator. This loading effect causes the output amplitude of the oscillator to decrease. Figure 8-10 - Inductive Proximity Sensor
Sensing Target Object
(Pepperl & Fuchs, Inc.)
As long as the oscillator amplitude does not drop below the threshold level of the trigger circuit, the output of the sensor will remain off. However, as shown in Figure 8-11, if the target object moves closer to the face of the sensor, the eddy current loading will cause the oscillator to stall (cease to oscillate). When this happens, the trigger circuit senses the loss of oscillator output and causes the output switching device to switch “on”.

8-8

Chapter 8 - Discrete Position Sensors

Figure 8-11 - Inductive Proximity Sensor
Signals (Pepperl & Fuchs, Inc.)
The sensing range of a proximity sensor is the maximum distance the target object may be from the face of the sensor in order for the sensor to detect it. One parameter affecting the sensing range is the size (diameter) of the sensing coil in the sensor. Small diameter sensors (approximately ¼” in diameter) have typical sensing ranges in the area of 1mm, while large diameter sensors (approximately 3" in diameter) have sensing ranges in the order of 50mm or more. Additionally, since different metals have different values of resistivity (which limits the eddy currents) and permeability (which channels the magnetic field through the target), the type of metal being sensed will affect the sensing range.
Inductive proximity sensor manufacturers derate their sensors based on different metals, with steel being the reference (i.e., having a derating factor of 1.0). Some other approximate derating factors are stainless steel: 0.85, aluminum: 0.40, brass: 0.40, and copper 0.30.
As an example of how to apply the derating factors, assume you are constructing a machine to automatically count copper pennies as they travel down a chute, and the sensing distance will be 5mm. In order to detect copper (derating factor 0.30), you would need to purchase a sensor with a sensing range of 5mm / 0.30 = 16.7mm. Let’s say you found a sensor in stock that has a sensing range of 10mm. If you use this to sense the copper pennies, you would need to mount it near the chute so that the pennies will pass within (10mm)(0.30) = 3mm of the face of the sensor.
Inductive proximity sensors are available in both DC and AC powered models. Most require 3 electrical connections: ground, power, and output. However, there are other variations that require 2 wires and 4 wires. Most sensors are available with a built-in LED that indicates when the sensor is on. One of the first steps a designer should take when using any proximity sensor is to acquire a manufacturer’s catalog and investigate the various types, shapes, and output configurations to determine the best choice for the application. 8-9

Chapter 8 - Discrete Position Sensors
Since the parts of machines are generally constructed of some type of metal, there are an enormous number of possible applications for inductive proximity sensors. They are relatively inexpensive (~$30 and up), extremely reliable, operate from a wide range of power supply voltages, are rugged, and since they are totally self contained, they connect directly to the discrete inputs on a PLC with no additional external components. In many cases, inductive proximity sensors make excellent replacements for mechanical limit switches. To illustrate some of the wide range of possible applications of inductive proximity sensors (sometimes called inductive prox), consider these uses:
* By placing an inductive prox next to a gear, the prox can sense the passing gear teeth to give rotating speed information. This application is currently used as a speed feedback device in automotive cruise control systems where the prox is mounted in the transmission.
* All helicopters have an inductive prox mounted in the bottom of the rotor gearbox.
Should the gears in the gearbox shed any metal chips (indicating an impending catastrophic failure of the gearbox), the inductive prox senses these chips and lights a warning light on the cockpit instrument panel.
* Inductive proxes can be mounted on access doors and panels of machines. The
PLC can be programmed to shut down the machine anytime any of these doors and access panels are opened.
* Very large inductive proxes can be mounted in roadbeds to sense passing automobiles. This technique is currently used to operate traffic lights.
Capacitive Proximity Sensors
Capacitive proximity sensors are available in shapes and sizes similar to the inductive proximity sensor (as shown in Figure 8-12). However, because of the principle upon which the capacitive proximity sensor operates, applications for the capacitive sensor are somewhat different.

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Chapter 8 - Discrete Position Sensors

Figure 8-12 - Example of Capacitive
Proximity Sensors
(Pepperl & Fuchs, Inc.)
To understand how capacitive proximity sensors operate, consider the cutaway block diagram shown in Figure 8-13. The principle of operation of the sensor is that an internal oscillator will not oscillate until a target material is moved close to the sensor face.
The target material varies the capacitance of a capacitor in the face of the sensor that is part of the oscillator circuit. There are two types of capacitive sensor, each with a different way that this sensing capacitor is formed. In the dielectric type of capacitive sensor, there are two side-by-side capacitor plates in the sensor face. For this type of sensor, the external target acts as the dielectric. As the target is moved closer to the sensor face, the change in dielectric increases the capacitance of the internal capacitor, making the oscillator amplitude increase, which in turn causes the sensor to output an “on” signal. The conductive type of sensor operates similarly; however, there is only one capacitor plate in the sensor face. The target becomes the other plate. Therefore, for this type of sensor, it is best if the target is an electrically conductive material (usually metal or water-based).

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Chapter 8 - Discrete Position Sensors

Figure 8-13 - Capacitive Proximity Sensor
Internal Components
(Pepperl & Fuchs, Inc.)
As is shown in the waveform diagram in Figure 8-14, as the target approaches the face of the sensor, the oscillator amplitude increases, which causes the sensor output to switch on. Figure 8-14 - Capacitive Proximity Sensor
Signals (Pepperl & Fuchs, Inc.)
Dielectric type capacitive proximity sensors will sense both metallic and non-metallic objects. However, in order for the sensor to work properly, it is best if the material being sensed has a high density. Low density materials (foam, bubble wrap, paper, etc.) do not cause a detectable change in the dielectric and consequently will not trigger the sensor.
Conductive type capacitive proximity sensors require that the material being sensed be an electrical conductor. These are ideally suited for sensing metals and conductive liquids. For example, since most disposable liquid containers are made of plastic or cardboard, these sensors have the unique capability to “look” through the container and sense the liquid inside. Therefore, they are ideal for liquid level sensors.

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Capacitive proximity sensors will sense metal objects just as inductive sensors will.
However, capacitive sensors are much more expensive than the inductive types.
Therefore, if the material to be sensed is metal, the inductive sensor is the more economical choice.
Some of the potential applications for capacitive proximity sensors include:
* They can be used as a non-contact liquid level sensor. They can be place outside a container to sense the liquid level inside. This is ideal for milk, juice, or soda bottling operations.
* Capacitive proximity sensors can be used as replacements for pushbuttons and palm switches. They will sense the hand and, since they have no moving parts, they are more reliable than mechanical switches.
* Since they are hermetically sealed, they can be mounted inside liquid tanks to sense the tank fill level.
As with the inductive proximity sensors, capacitive proximity sensors are available with a built-in LED indicator to indicate the output logical state. Also, because capacitive proximity sensors are used to sense materials with a wide range of densities, manufacturers usually provide a sensitivity adjusting screw on the back of the sensor.
Then when the sensor is installed, the sensitivity can be adjusted for best performance in the particular application.
Ultrasonic Proximity Sensors
The ultrasonic proximity sensor operates using the same principle as shipboard sonar. As shown in Figure 8-15, an ultrasonic “ping” is sent from the face of the sensor.
If a target is located in front of the sensor and is within range, the ping will be reflected by the target and returned to the sensor. When an echo is returned, the sensor detects that a target is present, and by measuring the time delay between the transmitted ping and the returned echo, the sensor can calculate the distance between the sensor and the target.

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Chapter 8 - Discrete Position Sensors

Figure 8-15 - Ultrasonic Proximity Sensor
(Pepperl & Fuchs, Inc.)

As with any proximity sensor, the ultrasonic prox has limitations. The sensor is only capable of sensing a target that is within the sensing range. The sensing range is a funnel shaped area directly in front of the sensor as shown in Figure 8-16. Sound waves travel from the face of the sensor in a cone shaped dispersion pattern bounded by the sensor’s beam angle. However, because the sending and receiving transducers are both located in the face of the sensor, the receiving transducer is “blinded” for a short period of time immediately after the ping is transmitted, similar to the way our eyes are blinded by a flashbulb. This means that any echo that occurs during this “blind” time period will go undetected. These echos will be from targets that are very close to the sensor, within what is called the sensor’s deadband. In addition, because of the finite sensitivity of the receiving transducer, there is a distance beyond which the returning echo cannot be detected. This is the maximum range of the sensor. These constraints define the sensor’s useable sensing area.

Figure 8-16 - Ultrasonic Proximity Sensor
Useable Sensing Area
(Pepperl & Fuchs, Inc.)
Ultrasonic proximity sensors that have a discrete output generally have a switchpoint adjustment provided on the sensor that allows the user to set the target distance at which the sensor output switches on. Note that ultrasonic sensors are also available with analog outputs that will provide an analog signal proportional to the target distance. These types are discussed later in this chapter in the section on distance sensors.
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Ultrasonic proximity sensors are useful for sensing targets that are beyond the very short operating ranges of inductive and capacitive proximity sensors. Off the shelf ultrasonic proxes are available with sensing ranges of 6 meters or more. They sense dense target materials best such as metals and liquids. They do not work well with soft materials such as cloth, foam rubber, or any material that is a good absorber of sound waves, and they operate poorly with liquids that have surface ripple or waves. Also, for obvious reasons, these sensors will not operate in a vacuum. Since the sound waves must pass through the air, the accuracy of these sensors is subject to the sound propagation time of the air. The most detrimental impact of this is that the sound propagation time of air decreases by 0.17%/degree Celsius. This means that as the air temperature increases, a stationary target will appear to move closer to the sensor. They are not affected by ambient audio noise, nor by wind. However, because of their relatively long useful range, the system designer must take care when using more than one ultrasonic sensor in a system because of the potential for crosstalk between sensors.
One popular use for the ultrasonic proximity sensor is in sensing liquid level.
Figure 8-17 shows such an application. Note that since ultrasonic sensors do not perform well with liquids with surface turbulence, a stilling tube is used to reduce the potential turbulence on the surface of the liquid.

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Chapter 8 - Discrete Position Sensors

Figure 8-17 - Ultrasonic Liquid Level Sensor
(Pepperl & Fuchs, Inc.)

8-6.

Optical Proximity Sensors

Optical sensors are an extremely popular method of providing discrete-output sensing of objects. Since the sensing method uses light, it is capable of sensing any objects that are opaque, regardless of the color or reflectivity of the surface. They operate over long distances (as opposed to inductive or capacitive proximity sensors), will sense in a vacuum (as opposed to ultrasonic sensors), and can sense any type of material no matter whether it is metallic, conductive, or porous. Since the optical transmitters and receivers use focused beams (using lenses), they can be operated in close proximity of other optical sensors without crosstalk or interference.
There are fundamentally three types of optical sensors. These are the thru-beam, diffuse reflective, and retro-reflective. All three types have discrete outputs. These are generally available in one of three types of light source - incandescent light, red LED and
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Chapter 8 - Discrete Position Sensors infrared LED. The red LED and IR LED types of sensors generally have a light output that is pulsed at a high frequency, and a receiver that is tuned to the frequency of the source.
By doing so, these types have a high degree of immunity to other potentially interfering light sources. Therefore, red LED and IR LED sensor types function better in areas where there is a high level of ambient light (such as sunlight), or light noise (such as welding). In addition to specifying the sensor type and light source type, the designer also needs to specify whether the sensor output will be on when no light is received, or off when no light is received. Generally, this is specified as the logical condition when there is no light received, i.e., the dark condition. For this reason, the choices are specified as dark-on and dark-off. Thru-Beam (Interrupted)
The thru-beam optical sensor consists of two separate units, each mounted on opposite sides of the object to be sensed. As shown in Figure 8-18, one unit, the emitter is the light source that provides a lens-focused beam of light that is aimed at the receiver.
The other unit, the receiver, also contains a focusing lens, and is aimed at the light source.
Assuming this is a dark-on sensor, when there is nothing blocking the light beam, the light from the source is detected by the receiver and there is no output from the receiver.
However, if an object passes between the emitter and receiver, the light beam is blocked and the receiver switches on its output.

Figure 8-18 - Thru-Beam Optical Sensor, Dark On
(Pepperl & Fuchs, Inc.)

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Chapter 8 - Discrete Position Sensors
Thru-beam sensors are the most commonly known to the general public since they appear in action movies in which thieves are attempting to thwart a matrix of optical burglar alarm sensors setup around a valuable museum piece.
Thru-beam opto sensors work well as long as the object to be sensed is not transparent. They have an excellent (long) maximum operating range. The main disadvantage with this type of sensor is that since the emitter and receiver are separate units, this type of sensor system requires wiring on both sides of the transport system
(generally a conveyor) that is moving the object. In some cases this may be either inconvenient or impossible. When this occurs, another type of optical sensor should be considered. Diffuse Reflective (Proximity)
The diffuse reflective optical sensor shown in, Figure 8-19, has the light emitter and receiver located in the same unit. Assuming a dark-off sensor, light from the emitter is reflected from the target object being sensed and returned to the receiver which, in turn, switches on its output. When a target object is not present, no light is reflected to the receiver and the sensor output switches off (dark-off).

Figure 8-19 - Diffuse Reflective Optical Sensor,
Dark Off (Pepperl & Fuchs, Inc.)
Diffuse reflective optical sensors are more convenient than thru-beam sensors because the emitter and receiver are located in the same housing, which simplifies wiring.
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However, this type of sensor does not work well with transparent targets or targets that have a low reflectivity (dull finish, black surface, etc.). Care must also be taken with glossy target objects that have multifaceted surfaces (e.g., automobile wheel covers, corrugated roofing material), or objects that have gaps through which light can pass (e.g. toy cars with windows, compact disks). These types of target objects can cause optical sensors to output multiple pulses for each object.
.
Retro-reflective (Reflex)
The retro-reflective optical sensors is the most sophisticated of all of the sensors.
Like the diffuse reflective sensor, this type has both the emitter and receiver housed in one unit. As shown in Figure 8-20, the sensor works similarly to the thru beam sensor in that a target object passing in front of the sensor blocks the light being received. However, in this case, the light being blocked is light that is returning from a reflector. Therefore, this sensor does not require the additional wiring for the remotely located receiver unit.

Figure 8-20 - Retro-Reflective Optical Sensor,
Dark On (Pepperl & Fuchs, Inc.)
Generally, this type of sensor would not work well with glossy target objects because they would reflect light back to the receiver just as the remote reflector would. However, this problem is avoided using polarizing filters. This polarizing filter scheme is illustrated in Figure 8-21. Notice in our illustration that there is an added polarizing filter that polarizes the exiting light beam. In our illustration, this is a horizontal polarization. In the upper figure, notice that with no target object present, the specially designed reflector twists the polarization angle by 90 degrees, sending the light back in vertical polarization. At the
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Chapter 8 - Discrete Position Sensors receiver, there is another polarizing filter; however, this filter is installed with a vertical polarization to allow the light returning from the reflector to pass through and be detected by the receiver.
In the lower illustration of Figure 8-21, notice that when a target object passes between the sensor and the reflector, not only is the light beam disrupted, but if the object has a glossy surface and reflects the light beam, the reflected beam returns with the same horizontal polarization as the emitted beam. Since the receiver filter has a vertical polarization, the receiver does not receive the light, so it activates its output.

Figure 8-21 - Retro-Reflective Optical Sensor Using
Polarizing Filters (Sick Optic-Electronic, Inc.)
Retro-reflective sensors work well with all types of target objects. However, when purchasing the sensor, it is important to also purchase the reflector specified by the manufacturer. These sensors have a maximum range that is more than the diffuse reflective sensor, but less then the thru-beam sensor.

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Chapter 8 Review Question and Problems
1.

What is the difference between a discrete sensor and an analog sensor?

2.

Manufacturers specify the range of inductive proximity sensors based on what type of target metal?

3.

An inductive proximity sensor has a specified range of 5mm. What is it’s range when sensing a brass target object?

4.

Capacitive proximity sensors will sense metal objects as well a inductive proximity sensors. So why use inductive proximity sensors?

5.

Why are ultrasonic proximity sensors not used to sense close-range objects?

6.

When the beam of a thru-beam NPN dark-on optical sensor is interrupted by a target object, it’s output will be logically _____ (high or low).

7.

State one disadvantage in using a thru-beam optical sensor.

8.

What is the difference between a diffuse-reflective and retro-reflective optical sensor? 9.

Why do retro-reflective optical sensors use polarizing light filters?

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Chapter 9 - Encoders, Transducers, and Advanced Sensors

Chapter 9 - Encoders, Transducers, and Advanced Sensors
9-1.

Objectives

Upon completion of this chapter, you will know
” the difference between a sensor, transducer, and an encoder.
” various types of devices to sense and measure temperature, liquid level, force, pressure and vacuum, flow, inclination, acceleration, angular position, and linear displacement. ” how to select a sensor for an application.
” the limitations of each of the sensor types.
” how analog sensor outputs are scaled.
9-2.

Introduction

In addition to simple discrete output proximity sensors discussed in the previous chapter, the controls system designer also has available a wide variety of sensors that can monitor parameters such as temperature, liquid level, force, pressure and vacuum, flow, inclination, acceleration, position, and others. These types of sensors are usually available with either discrete or analog outputs. If discrete output is available, in many cases the sensors will have a setpoint control so that the designer can adjust the discrete output to switch states at a prescribed value of the measured parameter. It should be noted that sensor technology is a rapidly evolving field. Therefore, controls system designers should have a good source of manufacturers’ data and always scan new manufacturers catalogs to keep abreast of the latest available developments.
This chapter deals with three types of devices which are the encoder, the transducer, and sensor.
1.
2.
3.

The encoder is a device that senses a physical parameter and converts it to a digital code. In a strict sense, and analog to digital converter is an encoder since it converts a voltage or current to a binary coded value.
A transducer converts one physical parameter into another. The fuel level sending unit in an automobile fuel tank is a transducer because it converts a liquid level to a variable resistance, voltage, or current that can be indicated by the fuel gage.
As we saw in the previous chapter, a sensor is a device that senses a physical parameter and provides a discrete one-bit binary output that switches state whenever the parameter exceeds the setpoint.

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9-3.

Temperature

There are a large variety of methods for sensing and measuring temperature, some as simple as a home heating/air conditioning thermostat up to some that require some rather sophisticated electronics signal conditioning. This text will not attempt to cover all of the types, but instead will focus on the most popular.
Bi-Metallic Switch
The bi-metallic switch is a discrete (on-off) sensor that takes advantage of the fact that as materials are heated they expand, and that for the same change in temperature, different types of material expand differently. As shown in Figure 9-1, the switch is constructed of a bi-metallic strip. The bi-metallic strip consists of two different metals that are bonded together. The metals are chosen so that their coefficient of temperature expansion is radically different. Since the two metals in the strip will be at the same temperature, as the temperature increases, the metal with the larger of the two coefficients of expansion will expand more and cause the strip to warp. If we use the strip as a conductor and arrange it with contacts as shown in Figure 9-1 we will have a bi-metallic switch. Therefore, the bi-metallic strip acts as a relay that is actuated by temperature instead of magnetism.
Low Coefficient of Expansion

Low Coefficient of Expansion
N/O Contact

Common
Bi-Metallic Strip

N/O Contact
Common

High Coefficient of Expansion

N/C Contact

a) Low Temperature

High Coefficient of Expansion

N/C Contact

b) High Temperature

Figure 9-1 - Bi-metallic Temperature Switch
In most bi-metallic switches, a spring mechanism is added to give the switch a snap action. This forces the strip to quickly snap between it’s two positions which prevents arcing and pitting of the contacts as the bi-metallic strip begins to move between contacts.
As illustrated in Figure 9-2, the snap action spring is positioned so that no matter which position the bi-metallic strip is in, the spring tends to apply pressure to the strip to hold it in that position. This gives the switch hysteresis (or deadband). Therefore, the temperature at which the bi-metallic strip switches in one direction is different from the temperature that causes it to return to it’s original position.

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Chapter 9 - Encoders, Transducers, and Advanced Sensors
N/O Contact
Pivot

Common

N/O Contact

Common

N/C Contact

N/C Contact

Snap Action Spring
a) Low Temperature

b) High Temperature

Figure 9-2 - Bi-metallic Temperature Switch with Snap Action
The N/O and N/C electrical symbols for the temperature switch are shown in
Figure 9-3. Although the zig-zag line connected to the switch arm symbolizes a bi-metallic strip, this symbol is also used for any type of discrete output temperature switch, no matter how the temperature is sensed. Generally, temperature switches are drawn in the state they would take at room temperature. Therefore, a N/O temperature switch as shown on the left of Figure 9-3 would close at some temperature higher than room temperature, and the N/C switch on the right side of Figure 9-3 would open at high temperatures. Also, if the switch actuates at a fixed temperature (called the setpoint), we usually write the temperature next to the switch as shown next to the N/C switch in Figure 9-3. This switch would open at 255 degrees Fahrenheit.

255 F.
Figure 9-3 - Discrete Output
Temperature Switch Symbols
Thermocouple
Thermocouples provides analog temperature information. They are extremely simple, very rugged, repeatable, and very accurate. The operation of the thermocouple is based on the physical property that whenever two different (called dissimilar) metals are fused (usually welded) together, they produce a voltage. The magnitude of the voltage
(called the Seebeck voltage) is directly proportional to the temperature of the junction. For certain pairs of dissimilar metals, the temperature-voltage relationship is linear over a small range, however, over the full range of the thermocouple, linearization requires a complex polynomial calculation.
The temperature range of a thermocouple depends only on the two types of dissimilar metals used to make the thermocouple junction. There are six types of thermocouples that are in commercial use, each designated by a letter. These are listed in the table below. Of these, the types J, K and T are the most popular.

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Chapter 9 - Encoders, Transducers, and Advanced Sensors

Type

Metals Used

Temperature Range

E

Chromel-Constantan

-100 C to +1000 C

J

Iron-Constantan

0 C to +760 C

K

Chromel-Alumel

0 C to +1370 C

R

Platinum-Platinum/13%Rhodium

0 C to +1000 C

S

Platinum-Platinum/10%Rhodium

0 C to +1750 C

T

Copper-Constantan

-60 C to +400 C

In the table above, some of the metals are alloys. For example, chromel is a chrome-nickel alloy, alumel is an aluminum-nickel alloy, and constantan is a copper-nickel alloy.
It is important to remember that each time two dissimilar metals are joined, a
Seebeck voltage is produced. This means that thermocouples must be wired using special wire that is of the same two metal types as the thermocouple junction to which they are connected. Wiring a thermocouple with off the shelf copper hookup wire will create additional junctions and accompanying voltage and temperature measurement errors. For example, if we wish to use a type-J thermocouple, we must also purchase type-J wire to use with it, connecting the iron wire to the iron side of the thermocouple and the constantan wire to the constantan side of the thermocouple.
It is not possible to connect a thermocouple directly to the analog input of a PLC or other controller. The reason for this is that the Seebeck voltage is extremely small
(generally less than 50 millivolts for all types). In addition, since the thermocouples are non-linear over their full range, compensation must be added to linearize their output.
Therefore, most thermocouple manufacturers also market electronic devices to go with each type of thermocouple that will amplify, condition and linearize the thermocouple output. As an alternative, most PLC manufacturers offer analog input modules designed for the direct connection of thermocouples. These modules internally provide the signal conditioning needed for the thermocouple type being used.
As with all analog inputs, thermocouple inputs are sensitive to electromagnetic interference, especially since the voltages and currents are extremely low. Therefore, the control system designer must be careful not to route thermocouple wires near or with power conductors. Failure to do so will cause temperature readings to be inaccurate and erratic.
In addition, thermocouple wires are never grounded. Each wire pair is always routed all the way to the analog input module without any other intermediate connections.

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Resistance Temperature Device (RTD)
All metals exhibit a positive resistance temperature coefficient; that is, as the temperature of the metal rises, so does its ohmic resistance. The resistance temperature device (RTD) takes advantage of this characteristic. The most common metal used in
RTDs is platinum because it exhibits better temperature coefficient characteristics and is more rugged than other metals for this type of application. Platinum has a temperature coefficient of " = +0.00385. Therefore, assuming an RTD nominal resistance of 100 ohms at zero degrees C (one of the typical values for RTDs), its resistance would change at a rate of +0.385 ohms/degree C. All RTD nominal resistances are specified at zero degrees C, and the most popular nominal resistance is 100 ohms.
Example Problem:
A 100 ohm platinum RTD exhibits a resistance of 123.0 ohms. temperature? What is its

Solution:
Since all RTD nominal resistances are specified at zero degrees C, the nominal resistance for this RTD is 100 ohms at zero degrees C, and its change in resistance due to temperature is +23 ohms.
Therefore we divide +23 ohms by
0.385 ohms/degree C to get the solution, +59.7 degrees C.
There are two fundamental methods for measuring the resistance of RTDs. First, the
Wheatstone bridge can be used. However, keep in mind that since the RTD resistance change is typically large relative to the nominal resistance of the RTD, the voltage output of the Wheatstone bridge will not be a linear representation of the RTD resistance.
Therefore, the full Wheatstone bridge equations must be used to calculate the RTD resistance (and corresponding temperature). These equations are available in any fundamental DC circuits text.
The second method for measuring the RTD resistance is the 4-wire ohms measurement. This can be done by connecting the RTD to a low current constant current source with one pair of wires, and measuring the voltage drop at the RTDs terminals with another pair of wires. In this case a simple ohms law calculation will yield the RTD resistance. With newer integrated circuit technology, very accurate and inexpensive constant current regulator integrated circuits are readily available for this application.
As with thermocouples, most RTD manufacturers also market RTD signal conditioning circuitry that frees the system designer from this task and makes the measurement system design much easier.

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Integrated Circuit Temperature Probes
Temperature probes are now available that contain integrated circuit temperature transducers. These probes generally contain all the required electronics to convert the temperature at the end of the probe to a DC voltage generally between zero and 10 volts
DC. These require only a DC power supply input. They are accurate, reliable, extremely simple to apply, and they connect directly to an analog input on a PLC.
9-4.

Liquid Level
Float Switch

The liquid level float switch is a simple device that provides a discrete output. As illustrated in Figure 9-4, it consists of a snap-action switch and a long lever arm with a float attached to the arm. As the liquid level rises, the lever arm presses on the switch’s actuator button. Coarse adjustment of the unit is done by moving the vertical mounting position of the switch. Fine adjustment is done by loosening the mounting screws and tilting the switch slightly (one of the mounting holes in the switch is elongated for this purpose), or by simply bending the lever arm.
Switch
C

N/O
N/C

Pivot
Lever Arm

Elongated
Adjustment
Hole
Actuator

Float

Liquid

Figure 9-4 - Liquid Float Switch
The electrical symbols for the float switch are shown in Figure 9-5. The N/O switch on the left closes when the liquid level rises, and the N/C switch on the right opens as the liquid level rises.

Figure 9-5 - Discrete Output
Float Switch Symbols

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Chapter 9 - Encoders, Transducers, and Advanced Sensors
Float Level Switch
Another variation of the float switch that is more reliable (has fewer moving parts) is the float level switch. Although this is not commercially available as a unit, it can be easily constructed. As shown in Figure 9-6, a float is attached to a small section of PVC pipe. A steel ball is dropped into the pipe and an inductive proximity sensor is threaded and sealed into the pipe. The another section of pipe is threaded to the rear of the sensor and a pivot point is attached. The point where the sensor wire exits the pipe can be sealed; however, this may not be necessary because sensors are available with the wire sealed where it exits the sensor. When the unit is suspended by the pivot point in an empty tank, the float end will be lower than the pivot point and the steel ball will be some distance from the prox sensor. However, when the liquid level raises the float so that it is higher then the pivot point, the steel ball will roll toward the sensor and cause the sensor to actuate. In addition, since the steel ball has significant mass when compared to the entire unit, when the ball rolls to the sensor the center of gravity will shift to the left causing the float to rise slightly. This will tend to keep the ball to the left, even if there are small ripples on the surface of the liquid. It also means that the liquid level needed to switch on the unit is slightly higher then the level to turn off the unit. This effect is called hysteresis or deadband. Pivot

Seal

Inductive
Proximity Steel Ball
Sensor
Float
PVC Pipe

Liquid

Figure 9-6 - Float Level Switch

Capacitive
The capacitive proximity sensor used as a liquid level sensor as discussed the previous chapter can provide sensing of liquid level with a discrete output. However, there is another type of capacitive sensor that can provide an analog output proportional to liquid level. This type of sensor requires that the liquid be non-conductive (such as gasoline, oil, alcohol, etc.). For this type of sensor, two conductive electrodes are positioned vertically in the tank so that they are in close proximity, parallel, and at a fixed distance apart. When the tank is empty, the capacitance between the electrodes will be small because the dielectric between them will be air. However, as the tank is filled, the liquid replaces the air dielectric between the probes and the capacitance will increase. The value of the capacitance is proportional to the height of the liquid in the tank.

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Chapter 9 - Encoders, Transducers, and Advanced Sensors
The capacitance between the electrodes is usually measured using an AC
Wheatstone bridge. The differential output voltage from the bridge is then rectified and filtered to produce a DC voltage that is proportional to the liquid level. Any erratic variation in the output of the sensor due to the sloshing of the liquid in the tank can be removed by using either a stilling tube, or by low-pass filtering of the electrical signal.
9-5.

Force

When a force is applied to a unit area of any material (called stress), the material undergoes temporary deformation called strain. The strain can be positive (tensile strain) or negative (compression strain). For a given cross sectional area and stress, most materials have a very predictable and repeatable strain. By knowing these characteristics, we can measure the strain and calculate the amount of stress (force) being applied to the material. The strain gage is a fundamental building block in many sensors. Since it is capable of indirectly measuring force, it can also be used to measure any force-related unit such as weight, pressure (and vacuum), gravitation, flow, inclination and acceleration.
Therefore, it is very important to understand the theory regarding strain and strain gages.
Mathematically, strain is defined as the change in length of a material with respect to the overall length prior to stress, or )L / L. Since the numerator and denominator of the expression are in the same units (length), strain is a dimensionless quantity. The lower case Greek letter epsilon, ,, is used to designate strain in mathematical expressions.
Because the strain of most solid materials is very small, we generally factor out 10-6 from the strain value and then define the strain as MicroStrain, :Strain, or :,.
Example Problem:
A 1 foot metal rod is being stretched lengthwise by a given force. Under stress it is found that the length increases by 0.1mm. What is the strain?
Solution:
First, make sure all length values are in the same unit of measure. We will convert
1 foot to millimeters. 1 foot = 12 in/ft x 25.4mm/in = 304.8mm/ft. The strain is
, = )L / L = 0.1mm / 304.8mm = 0.000328, and the microstrain is :, = 328. Since the rod is stretching, )L is positive and therefore the strain is positive.
The most common method used for measuring strain is the strain gage. As shown in Figure 9-7, the strain gage is a printed circuit on a thin flexible substrate (sometimes called a carrier). A majority of the conductor length of the printed circuit is oriented in one direction (in the figure, the orientation is left and right), which is the direction of strain that
9-8

Chapter 9 - Encoders, Transducers, and Advanced Sensors the strain gage is designed to measure. The strain gage is bonded to the material being measured using a special adhesive that will accurately transmit mechanical stress from the material to the strain gage. When the gage is mounted on the material to be measured and the material is stressed, the strain gage strains (stretches or compresses) with the tested material. This causes a change in the length of the conductor in the strain gage which causes a corresponding change in its resistance. Note that because of the way the strain gage is designed, it is sensitive to stress in only one direction. In our figure, if the gage is stressed in the vertical direction, it will undergo very little change in resistance. If it is stressed at an oblique angle, it will measure the strain component in one direction only.
If it is desired to measure strain on multiple axes, one strain gage is needed for each axis, with each one mounted in the proper direction corresponding to its particular axis. If two strain gages are sandwiched one on top of another and at right angles to each other, then it is possible to measure oblique strain by vectorially combining the strain readings from the two gages. Strain gages with thinner longer conductors are more sensitive to strain than those with thick short conductors. By controlling these characteristics, manufacturer are able to provide strain gages with a variety of sensitivities (called gage factor). In strain equations, gage factor is indicated by the variable k. Mathematically the strain gage factor k is the change in resistance divided by the nominal resistance divided by the strain.
Typical gage factors are on the order of 1 to 4.

Figure 9-7 - Single Axis Strain Gage,
Approximately 10 Times Actual Size
(Measurements Group, Inc.)
Strain gages are commonly available in nominal resistance values of 120, 350, 600,
700, 1k, 1.5k, and 3k ohms. Because the change in resistance is extremely small with respect to the nominal resistance, strain gage resistance measurements are generally done using a balanced Wheatstone bridge as shown in Figure 9-8. The resistors R1, R2, and R3 are fixed, precision, low temperature coefficient resistors. Resistor RSTRAIN is the strain gage. The input to the bridge, Vin, is a fixed DC power supply of typically 2.5 to 10 volts.
The output Vout is the difference voltage from the bridge.
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Chapter 9 - Encoders, Transducers, and Advanced Sensors
R1

R3

-

V in V out +

R STRAIN

R2

Figure 9-8 - Strain Gage in a
Wheatstone Bridge Circuit
Assuming R1 = R2 = R3 = RSTRAIN, the bridge will be balanced and the output Vout will be zero. However, should the strain gage be stretched, it’s resistance will increase slightly causing Vout to increase in the positive direction. Likewise, if the strain gage is compressed, it’s resistance will be lower than the other three resistors in the bridge and the output voltage Vout will be negative.
For large resistance changes, the Wheatstone bridge is a non-linear device.
However, near the balance (zero) point, the bridge is very linear for extremely small output voltages. Since the strain gage resistance change is extremely small, the output of the bridge will likewise be small. Therefore, we can consider the strain gage bridge to be linear. For example, consider the graph shown in Figure 9-9. This is a plot of the
Wheatstone bridge output voltage versus strain gage resistance for a 600 ohm bridge (all four resistors are 600 ohms) with Vin = 1 volt. Notice that even for a strain gage resistance change of one ohm (which is unlikely), the bridge output voltage is very linear.

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Differential Bridge Voltage

0.0006
0.0004
0.0002
0
-0.0002
-0.0004
-0.0006
599

599.5
600
600.5
Gage Resistance, Ohms

601

Figure 9-9 - Wheatstone Bridge Output for 600 Ohm Resistors
Example Problem:
A 600 ohm strain gage is connected into a bridge circuit with the other three resistors R1 = R2 = R3 = 600 ohms. The bridge is powered by a 10 volt DC power supply. The strain gage has a gage factor k = 2.0. The bridge is balanced
(Vout = 0 volts) when the strain :, = 0.
What is the strain when
Vout = +500 microvolts?
Solution:
First, we will find the resistance of the strain gage. Referring back to Figure 9-8, since Vin is 10 volts, the voltage at the node between R1 and R2 is exactly 5 volts with respect to the negative terminal of the power supply. Therefore, the voltage at the node between R3 and RSTRAIN must be 5 volts + 500 microvolts, or 5.0005 volts.
By Kirchoff’s voltage law, the voltage drop on R3 is 10 v - 5.0005 = 4.9995 v. This makes the current through R3 and RSTRAIN 4.9995 v / 600 ohms = 8.333 millamperes.
Therefore, by ohms law, RSTRAIN = 5.0005 v / 8.333 mA = 600.12 ohms. Since the nominal value of RSTRAIN is 600 ohms, )R = 0.12 ohm.
The gage factor is defined as k = ()R/R)/(,). Solving for ,, we get , = ()R/R)/k.
Therefore the strain is, , = (0.12 / 600) / 2 = 0.0001, or the microstrain is, :, = 100.
(Note that an output of 500 microvolts corresponded to a microstrain of 100.
Therefore, since we consider this to be a linear function, we can now define the calibration of this strain gage as :, = Vout / 5)
One fundamental problem associated with strain gage measurements is that generally the strain gage is physically located some distance from the remaining resistors
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Chapter 9 - Encoders, Transducers, and Advanced Sensors in the bridge. Since the change in resistance of the strain gage is very small, the resistance of the wire between the bridge and strain gage unbalances the bridge and creates a measurement error. The problem is worsened by the temperature coefficient of the wire which causes the measurement to drift with temperature (generally strain gages are designed to have a very low temperature coefficient, but wire does not). These problems can be minimized by using what is called a three wire measurement as shown in Figure 9-10.

R1

R3

-

V in V out +

R STRAIN

R2

Figure 9-10 - Wheatstone Bridge Circuit with 3-Wire Strain Gage Connection
In this circuit, it is crucial for the wire from R3 to RSTRAIN to be identical in length, AWG size, and copper type to the wire from RSTRAIN to R2. By doing so, the voltage drops in the two wires will be equal. If we then add a third wire to measure the voltage on RSTRAIN, the resistance of the wire from R3 to RSTRAIN effectively becomes part of R3, and the resistance of the wire from RSTRAIN to R2 effectively becomes part of RSTRAIN which re-balances the bridge. This physical 3-wire strain gage connection scheme is shown in Figure 9-11.

Figure 9-11 - 3-Wire Connection to Strain Gage
(Measurements Group, Inc.)

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9-6.

Pressure/Vacuum

Since many machine systems use pneumatic (air) pressure, vacuum, or hydraulic pressure to perform certain tasks, it is necessary to be able to sense the presence of pressure or vacuum, and in many cases, to be able to measure the magnitude of the pressure or vacuum. Next we will discuss some of the more popular methods for the discrete detection and the analog sensing of pressure and vacuum.
Bellows Switch
The bellows switch is a relatively simple device that provides a discrete (on or off) signal based on pressure. Referring to Figure 9-12, notice that the bellows (which is made of a flexible material, usually rubber) is sealed to the end of a pipe from which the pressure is to be sensed. When the pressure in the pipe increases, the bellows pushes on the actuator of a switch. When the pressure increases to a point where the bellows overcomes the switch’s actuator spring force, the switch actuates, the N/O contact connects to the common, and the N/O contact disconnects from the common.
Generally, for most pressure sensing switches and sensors, a pressure hammer orifice is included in the device. This is done to protect the device from extreme pressure transients (called pressure hammer) caused by the opening and closing of valves elsewhere in the system which could rupture the bellows. Pressure hammer is most familiar to us when we quickly turn off a water faucet and hear the pipes in the home bang from the transient pressure. The orifice is simply a constriction in the pipe’s inner diameter so that air or fluid inside the pipe is prevented from flowing rapidly into the bellows.

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Switch
Actuator
Momentary
Pushbutton
Switch

Pipe
Wall

N/C

Pressure
Hammer
Orifice

N/O

Com

Bellows

Figure 9-12 - Bellows-Type Pressure Switch
Cross Section
The pressure at which the bellows switch actuates is difficult to predict because, in addition to pressure, it also depends on the elasticity of the bellows, the spring force in the switch, and the mechanical friction of the actuator. Therefore, these types of switches are generally used for coarse pressure sensing. The most common use is to simply detect the presence or absence of pressure on the system so that a controller (PLC) can determine if a pump has failed.
Because of the frailty of the rubber bellows, bellows switches cannot be used to sense high pressures. For high pressure applications, the bellows is replaced by a diaphragm made of a flexible material (nylon, aluminum, etc.) that deforms (bulges) when high pressure is applied. This deformation presses on the actuator of a switch.
The N/O and N/C electrical symbols for the pressure switch are shown in
Figure 9-13. The semicircular symbol connected to the switch arm symbolizes a pressure diaphragm. Generally, temperature switches are drawn in the state they would take at
1 atmosphere of pressure (i.e., atmospheric pressure at sea level). Therefore, a N/O pressure switch as shown on the left of Figure 9-13 would close at some pressure higher than 0 psig, and the N/C switch on the right side of Figure 9-13 would open at some pressure higher then 0 psig. Also, if the switch actuates at a fixed pressure, or setpoint, we usually write the setpoint pressure next to the switch as shown next to the N/C switch in Figure 9-13. This switch would open at 300 psig.

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300psi
Figure 9-13 - Discrete Output
Pressure Switch Symbols

Strain gage pressure sensor
The strain gage pressure sensor is the most popular method of making analog measurements of pressure. It is relatively simple, reliable, and accurate. It operates on the principle that whenever fluid pressure is applied to any solid material, the material deforms (strains). If we know the strain characteristics of the material and we measure the strain, we can calculate the applied pressure.
For this type of measurement, a different type of strain gage is used, as shown in
Figure 9-14. This strain gage measures radial strain instead of longitudinal strain. Notice that there are two different patterns of strain conductors on this strain gage. The pair around the edge of the gage (we will call the “outer gages”) appear as regular strain gages but in a curved pattern. Then there are two spiral gage patterns in the center of the gage
(we will call the “inner gages”). As we will see, each pattern serves a specific purpose in contributing to the pressure measurement.

Figure 9-14 - Diaphragm Strain Gage
(Omega Instruments)
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If we were to glue the diaphragm strain gage to a metal disk with known stress/strain characteristics, and then seal the assembly to the end of a pipe, we would have a unit as is appears in Figure 9-15a. The strain gage and disk assembly are mounted to the pipe with the strain gage on the outside (in Figure 9-15a, the top).
Tension
Seal

Diaphragm
Strain Gage

Compression

Compression

Seal

Pressure
Hammer
Orifice
Pipe
Wall
(a)

(b)

Figure 9-15 - Strain Gage Pressure Gage Cross Section
(a) 1 Atmosphere, (b) >1 Atmosphere
When pressure is applied to the inside of the pipe, the disk and strain gage begin to bulge slightly outward as shown in Figure 9-15b (an exaggerated illustration). The amount of bulging is proportional to the inside pressure. Referring to Figure 9-15b, notice that the top surface of the disk will be in compression around the outer edge (where the outer gages are located), and will be in tension near the center (where the inner gages are located).
Therefore, when pressure is applied, the resistance of the outer gages will decrease and the resistance of the inner gages will increase.
If we follow the conductor patterns on the diaphragm in Figure 9-14, we see that they are connected in a Wheatstone bridge arrangement (the reader is encouraged to trace the patterns and draw an electrical diagram). If we connect the gages as shown in
Figure 9-16, we can measure the strain (and therefore the pressure) by measuring the voltage difference Va-Vb. When pressure is applied, since the resistance of the outer gages will decrease and the resistance of the inner gages will increase, the voltage Va will increase and the voltage Vb will decrease, which will unbalance the bridge. The voltage difference Va-Vb will be positive indicating positive pressure.

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Outer gage

Inner Gage

Va

Inner Gage

Vb

Av

Av(Va-Vb)

Outer gage
Instrumentation Amplifier

Figure 9-16 - Strain Gage Pressure Gage Electrical Connection
If a vacuum is applied to the sensor, the disk and strain gage will deform (bulge) inward. This causes an exact opposite effect in all the resistance values which will produce a negative voltage output from the Wheatstone bridge.
Many strain gage type pressure sensors (also called pressure transducers) are available with the instrumentation amplifier included inside the sensor housing. The entire unit is calibrated to produce a precise output voltage proportional to pressure. These units have an output that is usually specified as a calibration factor in psi/volt.
Example Problem:
A 0 to +250psi pressure transducer has a calibration factor of 25psi/volt. a) What is the pressure if the transducer output is 2.37 volts? b) What is the full scale output voltage of the transducer?
Solution:
a) When working a problem of this type, dimensional analysis helps. The calibration factor is in psi/volt and the output is in volts. If we multiply psi/volt times volts, we get psi, the desired unit for the solution. Therefore, the pressure is 25psi/volt x 2.37 v = 59.25psi.
b) The full scale output voltage is 250psi / 25psi/volt = 10 volts.
Variable Reluctance Pressure Sensor
Another method for measuring pressure and vacuum that is more sensitive than most other methods is the variable reluctance pressure sensor (or transducer). This unit operates similarly to the linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) discussed later in this chapter. Consider the cross section illustration of the variable reluctance pressure sensor shown in Figure 9-17. Two identical coils (same dimensions, same number of turns, same size wire) are suspended on each side of a ferrous diaphragm disk. The disk is
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Chapter 9 - Encoders, Transducers, and Advanced Sensors sealed to the end of a small tube or pipe. The two coils are connected to an AC
Wheatstone bridge with two other matched coils L3 and L4. If the pressure inside the pipe is one atmosphere, the disk will be flat and the inductance of each of the two coils will be the same (L1=L2). In this case, the bridge will be balanced and Vout will be zero. If there is pressure inside the pipe, the diaphragm will deform (bulge) upward. Since the disk is made of a ferrous material, and since it has moved closer to L1, the reluctance in coil L1 will decrease which will increase its inductance. At the same time, since the disk has moved away from L2, its reluctance will increase which will decrease its inductance. This will unbalance the bridge and produce an AC output. The magnitude of the output is proportional to the displacement of the disk (the pressure), and the phase of the output with respect to the AC source depends on the direction of displacement (pressure or vacuum).

L1

L3

Ferrous
Diaphragm
Vout
Seal
L2

L4

Pipe Wall

Figure 9-17 - Variable Reluctance Pressure Sensor
(Cross Section)
9-7.

Flow

The flow, Q, of a fluid in a pipe is directly proportional to the velocity of the fluid, V, and the cross sectional area of the pipe, A. Therefore, we can say Q = V x A. This is a relatively simple concept to memorize by applying dimensional analysis. For example, in
English units, flow is measured in cubic feet per second, velocity in feet per second, and area in square feet, which results in ft3/s = ft/s x ft2. Therefore, we may conclude that if we wish to increase the flow of a fluid in a pipe, we have two choices - we can increase the fluid’s velocity, or install a larger diameter pipe. Fluid flow is measured in many different ways, some (but not all) of which are discussed below. For a comprehensive treatment of fluid flow measurement techniques, the reader should refer to any manufacturer’s tutorial on the subject, such as Omega Instruments’ Fluid Flow and Level Handbook.
Drag Disk Flow Switch

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Any time a moving fluid passes an obstruction, a pressure difference is created, with the higher pressure on the upstream side of the obstruction. This pressure difference applies a force to the obstruction that tends to move it in the direction of the fluid flow. The amount of force applied is proportional to the velocity of the fluid (which is proportional to flow rate), and the cross sectional area the obstruction presents to the flow. For example, a sailboat will move faster if either the wind velocity increases or if we turn the sails so that they present a larger area to the wind. We can take advantage of this force to actuate a switch by using a drag disk as shown Figure 9-18. This unit consists of a case containing a snap-action switch, a switch lever arm extending from the bottom of the case, and a circular disk attached to the end of the lever arm. In this case, the device is threaded into a “T” connector installed in the pipe and oriented such that the drag disk is perpendicular to the direction of flow. As flow rate increases it increases the force on the drag disk. At a predetermined high flow rate the force on the drag disk is sufficient to push the lever arm to the right and actuate the switch.
The trip point of this type of switch is adjustable by a screw adjustment that varies the counteracting spring force applied to the lever arm. In addition, the range of adjustment can be changed by changing the cross sectional area of the drag disk. Switches of this type are usually provided with a set of several drag disks of different sizes.

Figure 9-18 - Drag Disk
Flow Switch
(Omega Instruments)
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Another variation of the drag disk flow switch is the in-line flow meter with proximity switch. As shown in Figure 9-19 this device has it’s drag disk mounted inside a plastic or glass tube with an internal spring to counteract the force applied to the disk by fluid flow.
Since the tube is clear and has graduations marked on the outside, the flow rate may also be visually measured by viewing the position of the drag disk inside the tube. A toroidal permanent magnet is mounted on the downstream side of the drag disk and is held in place by the spring force. A magnetic reed switch is mounted on the outside of the tube with it’s vertical position on the tube being set by an adjustment screw. As fluid flow increases the disk and piggy-back magnet will rise in the tube. When the magnet aligns with the reed switch the switch will actuate.

Figure 9-19 - In-Line Flow Meter with Proximity
Switch
(Omega Instruments)
Thermal Dispersion Flow Switch
A method to indirectly measure flow is by measuring the amount of heat that the flow carries away from a heater element that is inserted into the flow. By setting a trip point, we can have an electronic temperature switch actuate when the temperature of the heated probe drops below a predetermined level. This device is called a thermal dispersion flow switch. One problem associated with this technique is that, since we may not know the temperature of the fluid in the pipe, it is difficult to determine the flow based simply on the temperature of the heated probe. For example, if we heat the probe to say 50 degrees
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Celsius, and the fluid temperature happens to be 49 degrees Celsius, then when fluid is moving in the pipe our device will “see” a very slight temperature drop in the heated probe and therefore conclude that the flow is for all practical purposes zero. To circumvent this problem, this device actually consists of two probes, as shown in Figure 9-20. One probe is heated, one is not. The probe that is not heated will measure the static temperature of the fluid while the heated probe will measure the temperature decrease due to fluid flow.
Electronic circuitry then calculates the temperature differential ratio, compares it to the setpoint (which is adjustable using a built-in potentiometer), and outputs a logical on/off signal. One major advantage to this type of temperature switch is that, since it has no moving parts, it is extremely reliable and it works well in dirty fluids that would normally foul the types of probes that have moving parts. Obviously, in dirty fluid systems, the probe must be periodically removed and cleaned in order to keep the setpoint from drifting due to contaminated probes.

Figure 9-20 - Thermal Dispersion Flow Switch
(Omega Instruments)

Paddlewheel Flow Sensor
One method to directly measure flow velocity is to simply insert a paddlewheel into the fluid flow and measure the speed that the paddlewheel rotates. This device, called a paddlewheel flow sensor (shown in Figure 9-21), usually provides an output of pulses, with the pulse rate being proportional to flow velocity. Some of the more elaborate models will also convert the pulse rate to a DC voltage (an analog output). Keep in mind that as with many types of flow sensors, the device actually measures fluid speed, not flow rate.
However, flow rate can be calculated if the pipe diameter is also known.

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Figure 9-21 - Paddle Wheel Flow Sensor
(Omega Instruments)
Turbine Flow Sensor
A variation on the paddlewheel sensor is the turbine flow sensor, illustrated in
Figure 9-22. In this case, the paddlewheel is replaced by a small turbine that is suspended in the pipe. A special support mechanism routes fluid through the vanes of the turbine without disturbing the flow (i.e. without causing turbulence). The turbine vanes are made of metal (usually brass); therefore they can be detected by an inductive proximity sensor which is mounted in the top of the unit. As with the paddlewheel, this device outputs a pulse train with the pulse frequency proportional to the flow velocity.

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Figure 9-22 - Turbine Flow Sensor, Cut Away View
(Omega Instruments)
Pitot Tube Flow Sensor
As mentioned earlier, whenever an obstruction is placed within a fluid flow, a pressure difference occurs on the upstream and downstream sides of the obstruction that changes with the fluid flow velocity. This, of course, is the principle behind the operation of the drag disk, paddlewheel, and turbine sensors. This differential pressure is proportional to the square of the flow velocity. If we insert an obstruction into the fluid flow and measure the upstream and downstream pressures, we can calculate the fluid velocity.
The device that does this is called a pitot tube. The most common application for the pitot tube is in the sensor for airspeed indicators in aircraft. However, for measuring the flow velocity in a pipe, although the principle is the same as that of airspeed indicators, the pitot tube is constructed quite differently. The tube, shown in Figure 9-23, is constructed with two orifices, one to sense the upstream pressure and the other for downstream pressure.
Two small pipes contained inside the pitot tube connect these two orifices to two valves on the opposite end of the probe. Two tubes connect the valves on the pitot tube to a differential pressure transducer that has an electrical analog output. In operation, the upstream and downstream pressures are sent from the pitot tube, through the valves, to the differential pressure transducer. Most manufacturers provide additional electrical circuitry inside the differential pressure transducer that will linearize and calibrate the analog output to be directly proportional to the fluid flow rate.

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Figure 9-23 - Pitot Tube Flow Sensor
(Omega Instruments)

9-8.

Inclination

Inclination sensors are generally called inclinometers or tilt gages. Inclinometers usually have an electrical output while tilt gages have a visual output (usually a meter or fluid bubble indication). Inclinometers normally have an analog output, but if they have a discrete output they are called tilt switches.
The most popular inclinometer is the electrolytic inclinometer. This device consists of a glass tube with three electrodes, one mounted in each end and one in the center. The tube is filled with a non-conductive liquid (such as glycol) which acts as the electrolyte.
Since the tube is not completely filled with liquid, there will be a bubble in the tube, much like a carpenter’s bubble level. As the tube is tilted this bubble will travel away from the center line of the tube. A typical inclinometer tube is shown on the left of Figure 9-24.
Since there are electrodes in each end of the tube, there are two capacitors formed within the tube - one capacitor is from one end electrode and the center electrode, and the other capacitor is from the other end electrode and the center electrode. As long as the tube is level, the bubble is centered and each capacitor has the same amount of electrolyte between its electrode pair, thus making the two capacitor values equal. However, when the tube is tilted, the bubble shifts position inside the tube. This changes the amount of dielectric (electrolyte) between the electrodes which causes a corresponding shift in the capacitance ratio between the two capacitors. By connecting the two capacitors in the tube into an AC Wheatstone bridge and measuring the output voltage, the shift in capacitance ratio (and the amount of tilt) can be measured as a change in voltage, and the direction of tilt can be measured by analyzing the direction of phase shift.

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Figure 9-24 - Inclinometer Tube (Left) and Inclinometer Assemblies (Right)
(The Fredericks Company)
When installing the inclinometer, it is extremely important to make sure that the measurement axis of the inclinometer is aligned with the direction of the inclination to be measured. This is because inclinometers are designed to ignore tilt in any direction except the measurement axis (this is called cross-axis rejection or off-axis rejection). The inclinometer must also be mechanically zeroed after installation. This is done using adjustment screws or adjustment nuts as shown on the right of Figure 9-24.
The inclinometer system output voltage after signal conditioning and calibration is usually graduated in volts/degree or, for the more sensitive inclinometers, volts/arcminute.
The signal conditioning and calibration allow the designer to connect the output of the inclinometer system directly to the analog input of a PLC.
9-9.

Acceleration

Acceleration sensors (called accelerometers) are use in a variety of applications including aircraft g-force sensors, automotive air bag controls, vibration sensors, and instrumentation for many test and measurement applications. Acceleration measurement is very similar to inclination measurement with the output being graduated in volts/g instead of volts/degree. However, the glass tube electrolytic inclination method described above cannot be used because the accelerometer must be capable of accurate measurements
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Chapter 9 - Encoders, Transducers, and Advanced Sensors in any physical position. For example, if we were to orient an accelerometer so that it is standing on end, it should output an acceleration value of 1g. Glass tube inclinometers will reach a saturation point under extreme inclinations, accelerometers will not.
Acceleration measurement sounds somewhat complicated, however, it actually is relatively simple. One method to measure acceleration is to use a known mass connected to a pressure strain gage as shown previously in Figure 9-15. Instead of the diaphragm being distorted by fluid or gas pressure, it is distorted by the force from a known mass resting against the diaphragm. When a pressure strain gage is used to measure weight
(or acceleration), the device is called a load cell.
Figure 9-25 shows three strain gage accelerometers. In the lower right corner of the figure is a one axis accelerometer, on the left is a 2-axis accelerometer, and in the upper right is a 3-axis accelerometer. Note that each measurement axis is marked on the device.

Figure 9-25 - Strain Gage Accelerometers
(Entran Sensors and Electronics)
Each accelerometer requires a strain gage bridge compensation resistor and amplifier as shown in Figure 9-26. In this figure, the IMV Voltage Module is an instrumentation amplifier with voltage output. In some applications, the strain gage bridge compensation resistor and amplifier are included in the strain gage module.

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Figure 9-26 - Strain Gage Signal Conditioning
(Entran Sensors and Electronics)

9-10. Angle Position Sensors
Slotted disk and Opto-Interrupter
When designing or modifying rotating machines, it is occasionally necessary to know when the machine is in a particular angular position, the rotating speed of the machine, or how many revolutions the machine has taken. Although this can be done with an optical encoder, one relatively inexpensive method to accomplish this is to use a simple slotted disk and opto-interrupter. This device is constructed of a circular disk (usually metal) mounted on the machine shaft as shown in Figure 9-27. A small radial slot is cut in the disk so that light from an emitter will pass through the slot to a photo-transistor when the disk is in a particular angular position. As the disk is rotated, the photo-transistor outputs one pulse per revolution. Generally, the slotted disk is painted flat black or is black anodized to keep light scattering and reflections to a minimum.
SLOTTED DISK

SHAFT

LIGHT EMITTER

PHOTO-TRANSISTOR

Figure 9-27 - Slotted Disk and Opto-Interrupter

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The slotted disk system can be used to initialize the angular position of a machine.
The process of initializing a machine position is called homing and the resulting initialized position is called the home position. To do this, the PLC simply turns on the machine’s motor at a slow speed and waits until it receives a signal from the photo-transistor.
Generally, homing is also a timed operation. That is, when the PLC begins homing, it starts an internal timer. If the timer times out before the PLC receives a home signal, then there is evidently something wrong with the machine (i.e. either the machine is not rotating or the slotted disk system has malfunctioned). In this case, the PLC will shut down the machine and produce an alarm (flashing light, beeper, etc.)
If the slotted disk is used to measure rotating speed, there are two standard methods to do this.
1. In the first method, the PLC starts a retentive timer when it receives a pulse from the photo-transistor. It then stops the timer on the next pulse. The rotating speed of the machine in RPM is then Srpm = 60 / T, where T is the time value in the timer after the second pulse. This method works well when the machine is rotating very slowly ( 0) = kp (SP - speed) - kd mspeed
In other words, the CV is reduced by a constant kd times the slope of the speed curve.
Therefore, as the motor accelerates, the derivative function reduces the CV and therefore attempts to reduce the rate of acceleration. This phenomenon is what reduced the motor speed overshoot in Figure 10-12 because the control system has “throttled back” on the motor acceleration. In a similar manner, as the motor speed decelerates, the negative speed slope causes the derivative function to increase the CV in an attempt to reduce the deceleration rate.
Since the derivative function tends to dampen the motor’s acceleration and deceleration rates, the amount of hunting required to bring the motor to its final operating speed is reduced, and the system settles more quickly. For this reason, the derivative function is sometimes called rate damping. If the machine is diesel, gasoline, steam, or gas turbine powered, this is sometimes called throttle damping. Also, if the hunting can be reduced by increasing kd, we can then increase the proportional gain kp to help further reduce the offset without encountering instability problems.
It would seem logical that if the derivative function can control the rate of acceleration to reduce overshoot and hunting, then we should be able to further improve the motor control performance shown in Figure 10-12 by an additional increase in kd.
Figure 10-13 shows the response of our motor control system where kd has been increased by a factor of 4. Note that now there is only a slight overshoot and the system settles very quickly. It is possible to achieve even faster response of the system by further increasing
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Chapter 10 - Closed Loop and PID Control the proportional and derivative gain constants, kp and kd. However, the designer should take caution in doing so because the electrical voltage and current transients, and mechanical force transients can become excessive with potentially damaging results.

Figure 10-13 - DC Motor Speed Control with High kp and Moderate Derivative Gain kd
Although the transient response of our motor control system has been vastly improved, the offset is still present. By increasing the derivative constant kd, we eliminated the overshoot and hunting, but this had no effect on the offset. As indicated in
Figure 10-13, the proportional and derivative functions nearly drove the motor speed to the proper value, but then the speed began to droop. As we will investigate next, in order to reduce this offset, the integral function must be used.
Based on the results of our investigations of the derivative function in a PID closed loop control system, we can make the following general conclusion:
In a properly tuned PID control system, the derivative function improves the transient response of the system by reducing overshoot and hunting. A byproduct of the derivative function is the ability to increase the proportional gain with increased stability, reduced settling time, and reduced offset.
10-7. Integral Function
A true integral is defined as the graphical area contained in the space bordered by a plot of the function and the horizontal axis. Integrals are cumulative; that is, as time passes, the integral keeps a running sum of the area outlined by the function being integrated. To illustrate this, we will take the integral of the pulse function shown in
10-13

Chapter 10 - Closed Loop and PID Control
Figure 10-14a. This function switches from 0 to 2 at time t = 0, switches back to 0 at time t = 1 second, then at time t = 2 seconds switches to -3, and finally back to 0 at t = 3 seconds. The integral of this waveform is shown in Figure 10-14b.

y

S

2

2

1

1
0

1

-1
-2
-3

2

3

4

t (seconds) 0
-1

(a)

-2

t (seconds)
1

2

3

4

(b)

-3

Figure 10-14 - Accumulated Area (Integral) of a Pulse Waveform
When the input waveform in Figure 10-14a begins at time t = 0 we will assume that the integral starting value is zero. As time increases from 0 to 1 second, the area under the waveform increases, which is indicated by the rising waveform in Figure 10-14b. At 1 second when the waveform switches off, the total accumulated area is 2. Since the input is zero between t = 1 and t = 2, no additional area is accumulated. Therefore, the accumulated area remains at 2 as indicated by the output waveform in Figure 10-14b between t = 1 and t = 2. At t = 2, the input switches to -3, and the integral begins adding negative area to the total. This causes the output waveform to go in the negative direction.
Since the area under the negative pulse of the input waveform between t = 2 and t = 3 is
-3, the output waveform will decrease by 3 during the same time period.
Notice that the output waveform in Figure 10-14b ends at a value of -1. This is the total accumulated area of the input waveform in Figure 10-14a during the time period t = 0 to t = 4. In fact, we can determine the total accumulated area at any time by reading the value of the integral in Figure 10-14b at the desired time. For example, the total accumulated area at t = 0.5 second is +1, and the total accumulated area at t = 2.5 seconds is +0.5.
For the example waveform in Figure 10-14a, the integral process seems simple.
However, as with the derivative, if we wish to take the exact integral of a waveform that is nonlinear, such as a sine wave, the problem becomes more complicated and requires the use of calculus. For a control system (such as a PLC) this would be a heavy mathematical burden. So to lessen the burden, we instead have the PLC sample the input waveform at short evenly spaced intervals and calculate the area by multiplying the height (the
10-14

Chapter 10 - Closed Loop and PID Control amplitude) by the width (the time interval between samples), and then summing the rectangular slices, as shown in Figure 10-15. Doing so creates an approximation of the integral called the numerical integral or discrete integral. (It should be noted that in
Figure 10-15 the integral of a sine wave over one complete cycle, or any number of complete cycles, is zero because the algebraic sum of the positive slices and negative slices is zero.) As we will see, in a PID control system, the integrate function is used to minimize the offset. Since it will reset the system so that the SP and PV are equal, the integrate function is usually called the reset.

y
2
1

0

1

2

3

4

t (seconds)

-1
-2
Figure 10-15 - Discrete Integral of a Sine Wave
The error incurred in taking a numerical integral when compared to the true
(calculus) integral depends on the sampling rate. A slower sampling rate results in fewer samples and larger error, while a faster sampling rate results in more samples and smaller error. When used in a PID control system, this type of numerical integrator has an inherent problem. Since the integrator keeps a running sum of area slices, it will retain sums beginning with the time the system is switched on. If the control system is switched on and the machine itself is not running, the constant error can cause extremely high values to accumulate in the integral before the machine is started. This phenomenon is called reset wind-up or integral wind-up. If allowed to accumulate, these high integral values can cause unpredictable responses at the instant the machine is switched on that can damage the machine and injure personnel. To prevent reset windup, when the CV reaches a predetermined limit, the integral function is no longer calculated. This will keep the value of the CV within the upper and lower limits, both of which are specified by the PLC programmer. In some systems, these CV limits are called saturation, or output (CV) min and output (CV) max, or batch unit high limit and batch unit preload.

10-15

Chapter 10 - Closed Loop and PID Control
In a closed loop system, whenever there is an offset in the response, there will be a non zero error signal. This is because the PV and the SP are not equal. Since the integral function input is connected to the same error signal as the derivative function, the integral will begin to sum the error over time. For large offsets, the integral will accumulate rapidly and its output will increase quickly. For smaller offsets, the integral output will change more slowly. However, note that as long as the offset is non-zero, the integral output will be changing in the direction that will reduce the offset. Therefore, in a closed loop PID control system we can reduce the offset to near zero by increasing the integral gain constant, ki to some positive value.
Therefore, we will now attempt to reduce the offset in our motor speed control example to zero by activating the integral function. Figure 10-16 shows the result of increasing ki. Note that the transient response has changed little, but after settling, the offset is now zero.

Figure 10-16 - DC Motor Speed Control with
High kp, Moderate Derivative Gain kd, and
Low Integral Gain ki.
It is not advisable to make the integral gain constant ki excessively high. Doing so causes the integral and proportion functions to begin working against each other which will make the system more unstable. Systems with excessive values of ki will exhibit overshoot and hunting, and may oscillate.
To summarize the purpose of the integral function, we can now make the following general statement. In a closed loop PID system, the integral function accumulates the system error over time and corrects the error to be zero or nearly zero.
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Chapter 10 - Closed Loop and PID Control
10-8. The PID in Programmable Logic Controllers
Although the general PID concepts and the effects of adjusting the kp, ki and kd constants are the same, when using a programmable logic controller to perform a PID control function, there are some minor differences in the way the PID is adjusted. The PID control unit of a PLC performs all the necessary PID calculations on an iterative basis. That is, the PID calculations are not done continuously, but are triggered by a timing function.
When the timing trigger occurs, the PV and SP are sampled once and digitized, and then all of the proportional, integral, and derivative functions are calculated and summed to produce the CV. The PID then pauses waiting for the next trigger.
The exact parallel PID expression is t 

d
CV = k p  ( SP − PV ) + k i ∫ ( SP − PV )dt + k d ( SP − PV ) 
However,
dt
0


since the

PLC performs discrete integral and derivative calculations based on the sampling time interval )t, the “discrete” PID performed by a PLC is t 
∆ ( SP − PV ) 
CV = k p  ( SP − PV ) + k i ∑ ( SP − PV )∆ t + k d

∆t the 0



In numerical integral part of the above expression, since SP - PV is the error signal, then t ∑ ( SP − PV ) ∆ t is the sum

of the areas (the error times the time interval) as illustrated

0

in Figure 10-15, beginning from the time the system is switched on (t=0) until the present time t. In a similar manner, the numerical derivative

∆ ( SP − PV ) is the slope of the error
∆t

signal (the rise divided by the run). The numerator term )(SP-PV) is the present error signal minus the error signal measured in the most recent sample.
Additionally, in order to make the PID tuning more methodical (as will be shown), most PLC manufacturers have replaced ki with what is termed the reset time constant, or integral time constant, Ti. The reset time constant Ti is 1/ki or the inverse of the integral gain constant.2 For similar reasons, the derivative gain constant kd has been

2

If no integral action is desired, Ti is set to zero. Mathematically, this is nonsense because if Ti = 0, ki = 4 which would make the integral gain infinite. However,
PID systems are especially programmed to recognize Ti = 0 as a special case and
10-17

Chapter 10 - Closed Loop and PID Control replaced with the derivative time constant Td, where Td = kd. Therefore, when tuning a
PLC operated PID controller, the designer will be adjusting the three constants kp, Ti and
Td. Using these constants, our mathematical expression becomes


1
CV = k p  ( SP − PV ) +
Ti


t

∑ ( SP − PV )∆ t + T

d

0

∆ ( SP − PV ) 

∆t


Some controlled systems respond very slowly. For example, consider the case of a massive oven used to cure the paint on freshly painted products. Even when the oven heaters are fully on, the temperature rate of change may be as slow as a fraction of a degree per minute. If the system is responding this slowly, it would be a waste of processor resources to have the PID continually update at millisecond intervals. For this reason, some of the more sophisticated PID controllers allow the designer to adjust the value of the sampling time interval )t. For slower responding systems, this allows the PID function to be set to update less frequently, which reduces the mathematical processing burden on the system.
10-9. Tuning the PID
Tuning a PID controller system is a subjective process that requires the designer to be very familiar with the characteristics of the system to be controlled and the desired response of the system to changes in the setpoint input. The designer must also take into account the changes in the response of the system if the load on the machine changes.
For example, if we are tuning the PID for a subway speed controller, we can expect that the system will respond differently depending on whether the subway is empty or fully loaded with passengers. Additional PID tuning problems can occur if the system being controlled has a nonlinear response to CV inputs (for example, using field current control for controlling the speed of a shunt DC motor). If PID tuning problems occur because of system nonlinearity, one possible solution would be to consider using a fuzzy logic controller instead of a PID. Fuzzy logic controllers can be tuned to match the non-linearity of the system being controlled. Another potential problem in PID tuning can occur with systems that have dual mode controls. These are systems that use one method to adjust the system in one direction and a different method to adjust it in the opposite direction. For example, consider a system in which we need the ability to quickly and accurately control the temperature of a liquid in either the positive or negative direction. Heating the liquid is a simple operation that could involve electric heaters. However, since hot liquids cool slowly, we must rapidly remove the heat using a water cooling system. In this case, not only must the controller regulate the amount of heat that is either injected into or extracted simply switch off the integral calculation altogether.
10-18

Chapter 10 - Closed Loop and PID Control from the system, but it must also decide which control system to activate to achieve the desired results. This type of controller sometimes requires the use of two PIDs that are alternately switched on depending on whether the PV is above or below the SP.
Any designer who is familiar with the mathematical fundamentals of PID and the effect that each of the adjustments has on the system can eventually tune a PID to be stable and respond correctly (assuming the system can be tuned at all). However, to efficiently and quickly tune a PID, a designer needs the theoretical knowledge of how a PID functions, a thorough familiarity with how the particular machine being tuned responds to
CV inputs, and experience at tuning PIDs.
It seems as though every designer with experience in tuning PIDs has their own personal way of performing the tuning. However, there are two fundamental methods that can be best used by someone who is new to and unfamiliar with PID tuning. As with nearly all PID tuning methods, both of these methods will give “ballpark” results. That is, they will allow the designer to “rough” tune the PID so that the machine will be stable and will function. Then, from this point, the PID parameters may be further adjusted to achieve results that are closer to the desired performance. There is no PID tuning method that will give the exact desired results on the first try (unless the designer is very lucky!).
Theoretically, it is possible to mathematically calculate the PID coefficients and accurately predict the machine’s performance as a result of the PID tuning; however, in order to do this, the transfer function of the machine being controlled must be accurately mathematically modeled. Modeling the transfer function of a large machine requires determining mechanical parameters (such as mass, friction, damping factors, inertia, windage, and spring constants) and electrical parameters (such as inductance, capacitance, resistance and power factor), many of which are extremely difficult, if not impossible to determine. Therefore, most designers forego this step and simply tune the
PID using somewhat of a trial and error method.
10-10.

The “Adjust and Observe” Tuning Method

As the name implies, the “adjust and observe” tuning method involves the making of initial adjustments to the PID constants, observing the response of the machine, and then, knowing how each of the functions of the PID performs, making additional adjustments to correct for undesirable properties of the machine’s response. From our previous discussion of PID performance, we know the following characteristics of PID adjustments. 1.

Increasing the proportional gain kp will result in a faster response and will reduce
(but not eliminate) offset. However, at the same time, increasing proportional gain will also cause overshoot, hunting, and possible oscillation.
10-19

Chapter 10 - Closed Loop and PID Control
2.
3.

Increasing the derivative time constant Td will reduce the hunting and overshoot caused by increasing the proportional gain. However, it will not correct for offset.
Decreasing the integral time constant Ti (also called the reset rate or reset time constant) will cause the PID to reduce the offset to near zero. Smaller values of Ti will cause the PID to eliminate the offset at a faster rate. Excessively small (nonzero) values of Ti will cause integral oscillation.
The adjustment procedure is as follows.

1.
2.

Initialize the PID constants. This is done by disabling the derivative and integral functions by setting both Td and Ti to zero, and setting kp to an initial value between
1 and 5.
With the machine operating, quickly move the setpoint to a new value. Observe the response. Figure 10-17 shows some typical responses with a step setpoint change from zero to 10 for various values of kp. As shown in the figure, a good preliminary adjustment of kp will result in a response with an overshoot that is approximately
10%-30% of the setpoint change. At this point in the adjustment process we are not concerned about the minor amount of hunting, nor the offset. These problems will be correct later by adjusting Td and Ti respectively.

Figure 10-17 - kp Adjustment Responses

There is usually a large amount of range that kp can have for this adjustment. For example, the three responses shown in Figure 10-17 use kp values of 2, 20, and 200
10-20

Chapter 10 - Closed Loop and PID Control

3.

for this particular system. Although kp = 20 may not be the final value we will use, we will leave it at this value for a starting point.
Increase Td until the overshoot is reduced to a desired level. If no overshoot is desired, this can also be achieved by further increases in Td. Figure 10-18 shows our example system with kp = 20 and several trial values of Td. For our system, we will attempt to tune the PID to provide minimal overshoot. Therefore, we will use a value of Td = 8.

Figure 10-18 - Td Adjustment
4.

Adjust Ti such that the PID will eliminate the offset. Since Ti is the inverse of ki
(Ti = 1/ki), this adjustment should begin with high values of Ti and then be reduced to achieve the desired response. For this adjustment, Ti values that are too large will cause the system to be slow to eliminate the offset, and values of Ti that are too small will cause the PID system to correct the offset too quickly and it will tend to oscillate. Figure 10-19 shows our example system with kp = 20, Td = 8, and values of 1000, 100, and 10 for Ti. If we are tuning the system for minimal overshoot, a value of Ti = 100 is a good choice.

10-21

Chapter 10 - Closed Loop and PID Control

Figure 10-19 - Ti Adjustment

5.

Once the initial PID tuning is complete, the designer may now make further adjustments to the three tuning constants if desired. From this starting point the designer has the option to vary the proportional gain kp over a wide range. This can be done to obtain a faster response to a setpoint change. If the system is to operate with varying loads, it is extremely important to test it for system stability under all load conditions.

10-6. The Ziegler-Nichols Tuning Method
The Ziegler-Nichols tuning method (also called the ZN method) was developed in
1942 by two employees of Taylor Instrument Companies of Rochester, New York. J.G.
Ziegler and N.B. Nichols proposed that consistent and approximate tuning of any closed loop PID control system could be achieved by a mathematical process that involved measuring the response of the system to a change in the setpoint and then performing a few simple calculations. This tuning method results in an overshoot response which is acceptable for many control systems, and at least a good starting point for the others. If the desired response is to have less overshoot or no overshoot, some additional tuning will be required. The target amount of overshoot for the ZN method is to have the peak-topeak amplitude of each cycle of overshoot be 1/4 of the previous amplitude, as illustrated
10-22

Chapter 10 - Closed Loop and PID Control in Figure 10-20. Hence, the ZN method is sometimes called the 1/4 wave decay method.
Although it is unlikely that the ZN tuning method will achieve and exact 1/4 wave decay in the system response, the results will be a stable system, and the tuning will be approximated so that the system designer can do the final tweaking using an “adjust and observe” method.

Figure 10-20 - 1/4 Wave Decay
The main advantage in using the ZN tuning method is that all three tuning constants kp, Td, and Ti, are pre-calculated and input to the system at the same time. It does not require any trial and error to achieve initial tuning. The chief disadvantage in using ZN tuning is that in order to obtain the system’s characteristic data to make the calculations, the system must be operated either closed loop in an oscillating condition, or open loop. We shall investigate both approaches.
Oscillation Method
Using the oscillation method, we will be determining two machine parameters called the ultimate gain ku and the ultimate period Tu. Using these, we will calculate kd, Ti and Td.
1.
2.

Initialize all PID constants to zero. Power-up the machine and the closed loop control system.
Increase the proportional gain kp to the minimum value that will cause the system to oscillate. This must be a sustained oscillation, i.e., the amplitude of the oscillation must be neither increasing nor decreasing. It may be necessary to make changes in the setpoint to induce oscillation.
10-23

Chapter 10 - Closed Loop and PID Control
3.
4.
5.

Record the value of kp as the ultimate gain ku.
Measure the period of the oscillation waveform. The period is the time (in seconds) for it to complete one cycle of oscillation. This period is the ultimate period Tu.
Shut down the system and readjust the PID constants to the following values: kp = 0.6 ku
Ti = 0.5 Tu
Td = 0.125 Tu

As an example, we will apply the Ziegler-Nichols oscillation tuning method to our example motor speed control system that was used earlier in this chapter. First, with all of the gains set to zero, we increase the proportional gain kp to the point where the process variable is a sustained oscillation. This is shown in Figure 10-21 and occurs at kp = 505 (which is the ultimate gain ku).

Figure 10-21 - ZN Tuning Method OScillation
It is then determined from this graph that, since it makes 10 cycles of oscillation in 90 seconds, the period of oscillation and the ultimate period Tu is approximately 9 seconds.
Next we use the previously define equations to calculate the three gain constants. kp = 0.6 ku = (0.6)(505) = 303
Ti = 0.5 Tu = (0.5)(9) = 4.5
Td = 0.125 Tu = (0.125)(9) = 1.125
We then input these gain constants into the system and test the response with a setpoint change from zero to 1000, which is shown in Figure 10-22.
10-24

Chapter 10 - Closed Loop and PID Control

Figure 10-22 - Final Result of ZN Tuning, Oscillation Method

Open Loop Method
For the open loop method, we will be determining three machine parameters called the deadtime L, the process time constant T, and the process gain K. Using these, we will calculate kd, Ti and Td. These measurements will be made with the system in an open loop unity gain configuration; that is, with the process variable PV (the feedback) open circuited, the proportional gain set to 1 (kd = 1), and the integral and derivative gains set to zero
(Ti = Td = 0). The tuning steps are as follows.
1.
2.
3.

4.
5.

Input a known change the setpoint. This should be a step change.
Using a chart recorder, record a graph of the process variable PV with respect to time with time zero being the instant that the step input is applied.
On the graph, draw three intersecting lines. First, draw a line that is tangential to the steepest part of the rising waveform. Second, draw a horizontal line on the left of the graph at an amplitude equal to the initial value of the PV until it intersects the first line. Third, draw a horizontal line on the right of the graph at an amplitude equal to the final value of the PV until it intersects the first line.
Find the deadtime L as the time from zero to the point where the first and second lines intersect.
Find the process time constant T as the time difference between the points where the first line intersects the second and third.
10-25

Chapter 10 - Closed Loop and PID Control
6.
7.

Find the process gain K as the percent of the PV with respect to the CV (the PV divided by the CV).
Shut down the system and readjust the PID constants to the following values: kp = 1.5T/(KL)
Ti = 2.5L
Td = 0.4L

As an example, we will apply the Ziegler-Nichols open loop tuning method to our example motor speed control system that was used earlier in this chapter. Figure 10-23 shows the open loop response of the system with a SP change of zero to 1000.

Figure 10-23 - ZN Tuning Open Loop Response
Next we will add the three specified lines to the graph as shown in Figure 10-24.

10-26

Chapter 10 - Closed Loop and PID Control

L
T

PV Change

Figure 10-24 - System Open Loop Step Response
From the graph we can see that the deadband L is approximately 7 seconds, the process time constant T is 135 seconds, and the change in the setpoint is 980, which results in a process gain K of 0.98. Next we substitute these constants into our previous equations. kp = 1.5T/(KL) = (1.5 x 135)/(0.98 x 7) = 29.5
Ti = 2.5L = (2.5)(7) = 17.5
Td = 0.4L = (0.4)(7) = 2.8
When these PID constants are loaded into the controller and the system is tested with a zero to 1000 rpm step setpoint input, it responds as shown in Figure 10-25.

10-27

Chapter 10 - Closed Loop and PID Control

Figure 10-25 - ZN Tuning Result Using the Open Loop Method

Comparing the system step responses shown in Figures 10-22 and 10-25, we can see that although they are somewhat different in the response time and the amount of hunting, both systems are stable and can be further tuned to the desired response. It should be stressed that the Ziegler-Nichols tuning method is not intended to allow the designer to arrive at the final tuning constants, but instead to provide a stable starting point for further fine tuning of the system.

10-28

Chapter 10 - Closed Loop and PID Control
Chapter 10 Review Questions

10-29

Chapter 11 - Motor Controls

Chapter 11 - Motor Controls
11-1. Objectives
Upon completion of this chapter, you will know
” why a motor starter is needed to control large AC motors.
” the components that make up a motor starter and how it operates.
” why motor overload protection on AC motors is needed and how a eutectic metallic alloy motor overload operates.
” why, until recently, ac motors were used for constant speed applications, and dc motors were used for variable speed applications.
” how a pulse width modulated (PWM) dc motor speed control controls dc motor speed. ” how a variable frequency motor drive (VFD) operates to control the speed of an ac induction motor.
11-2. Introduction
Since most heavy machinery is mechanically powered by electric motors, the system designer must be familiar with techniques for controlling electric motors. Motor controls cover a broad range from simple on-off motor starters to sophisticated phase angle controlled dc motor controls and variable frequency ac motor drive systems. In this chapter we will investigate some of the more common and popular ways of controlling motors.
Since most heavy machinery requires large horsepower ac motors, and since large single phase motors are not economical, our coverage of ac motor controls will be restricted to
3-phase systems only.
11-3. AC Motor Starter
In its simplest form, a motor starter performs two basic functions. First, it allows the machine control circuitry (which is low voltage, either dc or single phase ac) to control a high current, high voltage, multi-phase motor. This isolates the dangerous high voltage portions of the machine circuits from the safer low voltage control circuits. Second, it prevents the motor from automatically starting (or resuming) when power is applied to the machine, even if power is removed for a very short interval. Motor starters are commercially available devices. As a minimum, they include a relay (in this case it is called a contactor) with three heavy-duty N/O main contacts to control the motor, one light duty
N/O auxiliary contact that is used in the control circuitry, and one light duty N/C overload contact which opens if a current overload condition occurs. This is shown in Figure 11-1.
11-1

Chapter 11 - Motor Controls

L1

A

Coil

L2

L3
13
Auxiliary
Contact

M

B

14
95

Main
Contacts

Thermal T1
Overloads

Overload
Contact
96
T2

T3

Figure 11-1 - Simple 3-Phase Motor Starter with Overloads
Most starters have terminal labels (letters or numbers) etched or molded into the body of the starter next to each screw terminal which the designer may reference on schematic diagrams as shown in Figure 11-1. The coil of the contactor actuates all of the main contacts and the auxiliary contact at the same time. The overload contact is independent of the contactor coil and only operates under an overload condition. More complex starters may have four or more main contacts (instead of three) to accommodate other motor wiring configurations, and extra auxiliary and overload contacts of either N/O or N/C type. In most cases extra auxiliary and overload contacts may be added later as needed by “piggybacking” them onto existing contacts.
Figure 11-2 illustrates one method of connecting the starter into the machine control circuitry. The terminal numbers on this schematic correspond to those on the motor starter schematic in Figure 11-1. Power from the 3-phase line (sometimes called the mains) is applied to terminals L1, L2, and L3 of the starter, while the motor to be controlled is connected to terminals T1, T2, and T3.

11-2

Chapter 11 - Motor Controls
L3
AC
LINE

L2
L1
H1

H3

H2

H4

L1

L2

L3

M

M

M

Starter
Fuse

X1

2

X2

1

Emerg. Stop

OL

Stop
3

Start
4

5
A
13

M

M

OL

OL

6
B

OL

95

96

T1

T2

T3

14
MOTOR

Figure 11-2 - Typical Motor Starter Application
In operation, when the rails are powered, pressing the Start switch provides power to the motor starter coil M. As long as the overload contacts OL are closed, the motor starter will actuate and three phase power will be provided to the motor. When the starter actuates, auxiliary contact M closes, which bypasses the Start switch. At this point the Start switch no longer needs to be pressed in order to keep the motor running. The motor will continue to run until (1) power fails, (2) the Emergency Stop button us pressed, (3) the Stop switch is pressed, or (4) the overload contact OL opens. When any one of these four events occurs, the motor starter coil M de-energizes, the three phase line to the motor is interrupted, and the auxiliary contact M opens.
11-4. AC Motor Overload Protection
For most applications, ac induction motors are overload protected at their rated current. Rated current is the current in each phase of the supplying line when operating at full rated load, and is always listed on the motor nameplate. Overload protection is
11-3

Chapter 11 - Motor Controls required to prevent damage to the motor and feed circuits in the event a fault condition occurs, which includes a blocked rotor, rotor stall, and internal electrical faults. In general, simple single phase fuses are not used for motor overload protection. When a motor is started, the starting currents can range from 5 to 15 times the rated full load current.
Therefore a fuse that is sized for rated current would blow when the motor is started. Even worse, since we would need to fuse each of the three phases powering a motor, if only one of the fuses were to blow, the motor would go into what is termed a single phasing condition. In this case the motor shaft may continue to rotate (depending on the mechanical load), but the motor will operate at a drastically reduced efficiency causing it to overheat and eventually fail. Therefore, the motor overload protection must (1) ignore short term excessive currents that occur during motor starting, and (2) simultaneously interrupt all three phases when an overload condition occurs.
The solution to the potential single phasing problem is to connect a current sensing device (called an overload) in series with each of the three phases and to mechanically link them such that when any one of the three overloads senses an over-current condition, it opens a contact (called an overload contact). The overload contact is connected into the motor starter circuit so that when the overload contact opens, the entire starter circuit is disabled, which in turn, opens the three phase motor contactor interrupting all three phases powering the motor. The nuisance tripping problem is overcome by designing the overloads such that they react slowly and therefore will not trip when a short term overload occurs, such as the normal starting of the motor.
The most popular type of overload is the thermal overload. Although some thermal overloads use a bimetallic temperature switch (the bimetallic switch is covered earlier in this text), the more popular type of thermal overload is the eutectic metallic alloy overload.
This device, shown in Figure 11-3, consists of a eutectic alloy1 which is heated by an electrical coil (called a heater) through which the phase current passes. If the phase current through the overload heater is excessive, the eutectic metal will eventually melt.
This releases a ratchet, which cams the normally closed overload contact into the open position. In order to make the overload reusable, the eutectic alloy in the overload is sealed in a tube so that it will not leak out when it melts. The sealed tube, eutectic metallic alloy, and spindle are commonly called the overload spindle, which is illustrated in Figure 11-4.
When the overload cools such that the eutectic alloy solidifies, the ratchet again will be prevented from rotating and the overload can then be reset by manually pressing a reset lever. For clarity, only one phase of the overload system is shown in Figure 11-3. In

1

A eutectic alloy is a combination of metals that has a very low melting temperature and changes quickly from the solid to liquid state, much like solder, instead of going through a “mushy” condition during the state change.
11-4

Chapter 11 - Motor Controls practice, for 3-phase systems there are three overloads operating the same overload contact. Overload
Heater
Phase
Current

Ratchet prevented from rotating by solid eutectic alloy.

Eutectic
Metallic
Alloy

Ratchet
Pawl
N/C
Overload
Contact

Cam
a) Set (or Reset)

Eutectic alloy melts, ratchet rotates, pawl is released.

b) Tripped

Figure 11-3 - Eutectic Metallic Alloy Thermal Overload (One Phase)

Figure 11-4 - Overload Spindle with Ratchet
(Allen Bradley)
One major advantage in using the thermal overload is that, as long as the overload is properly sized for the motor, the overload heats in much the same manner as the motor itself. Therefore, the temperature of the overload is a good indicator of the temperature of the motor windings. Of course, this principle is what makes the overload a good protection device for the motor. However, for this reason, the designer must consider any ambient temperature difference between the motor and the overload. If the motor and overload cannot be located in the same area, the overload size must be readjusted using a
11-5

Chapter 11 - Motor Controls temperature correction factor. It would be unwise to locate a motor outdoors but install the overload indoors in an area that is either heated in the winter or cooled in the summer without applying a temperature correction factor when selecting the overload.
Another advantage in using this type of overload is that the overload can be resized to a different trip current by simply changing the wire size of the heater coil. It is not necessary to change the overload spindle. A variety of off the shelf coil sizes are available for overloads and they can be easily changed in a few minutes using a screwdriver.
11-5. Specifying a Motor Starter
Motor starters must be selected according to 1) number of phases to be controlled,
2) motor size, 3) coil voltage, and 4) overload heater size. Additionally, the designer must specify any desired optional equipment such as the number of auxiliary contacts and overload contacts and their form types (form A or form B), and whether the starter is to be reversible. When selecting a starter, most system designers simply choose a starter manufacturer, obtain their catalog, and follow the selection guidelines in the catalog.
1.

Most motor starter manufacturers specify the contact rating by motor horsepower and line voltage. For most squirrel cage induction motors, knowing these two values will completely define the amount of voltage and current that the contacts must switch.

2.

By knowing the full load motor current (from the motor’s nameplate), the overload heater can be selected. Because the heater is a resistive type heater, the heat produced is a function of only the heater resistance and the phase current. Line voltage has no bearing on heater selection. Since the overload spindle heats slowly, normal starting current or short duration overcurrent conditions will not cause the overload to trip, so it is not necessary to oversize the heater.

3.

Since the contactor actuating coil is operated from the machine control circuitry, the coil voltage must be the same as that of the controls circuit, and either AC or DC operation must be specified. This may or may not be the same voltage as the contact rating and must be specified when purchasing the contactor. Contactors with AC and DC coils are not interchangeable, even if their rated voltage are the same.

4.

Auxiliary contacts and additional overload contacts are generally mounted to the front or side of the contactor. The designer may specify form A or form
B types for either of these contacts.

11-6

Chapter 11 - Motor Controls
11-5. DC Motor Controller
Before the advent of modern solid state motor controllers, most motor applications that required variable speed required the use of dc motors. The reason for this is that the speed of a dc motor can be easily controlled by simply varying either the voltage applied to the armature or the current in the field winding. In contrast, the speed of an ac motor is determined, for the most part, by the frequency of the applied ac voltage. Since electricity from the power company is delivered at a fixed frequency, ac motors were relegated to constant speed applications (such as manufacturing machinery) while dc motors were used whenever variable speed was required (in cranes and elevators, for example). This situation changed radically when variable frequency solid state motor controllers were introduced, which now allow us to easily and inexpensively operate ac motors at variable speeds. Although solid state controllers have allowed ac motors to make many inroads into applications traditionally done by dc motors, there are still many applications where a dc motor is the best choice for the job, mostly in battery powered applications. These are usually in the areas of small instrument motors used in robotics, remotely controlled vehicles, toys, battery operated electro-mechanical devices, automotive applications, and spacecraft. Additionally, the universal ac motor, which is used in ac operated power hand tools and kitchen appliances, is actually a spinoff of the series dc motor design (it is not an induction motor) and can be controlled in the same manner as a dc motor, i.e., by varying the applied voltage.
The voltage applied to the armature and the current through the field of a dc motor can be reduced by simply adding a resistance in series with the armature or field, which is a lossy and inefficient method. Under heavy mechanical loads, the high armature currents cause an exponentially high I2R power loss in any resistor in series with the armature.
Solid state electronics has made improvements in the control of dc motors in much the same way that it has with ac motors. In this chapter we will examine two of these solid state control techniques. In the first, we will be controlling the speed of a dc motor that is powered from a dc source. In the second we will be using an ac power source. In both cases, we will control the motor speed by varying the average armature voltage. We will assume the field is held constant either by the use of permanent magnets or by a constant field current. dc Motor Control with dc Power Source
Consider the circuit shown in Figure 11-5. In this case we have a dc voltage source
V, a resistor R, inductor L, diode D, and a semiconductor switch Q (shown here as an
N-channel insulated gate MOSFET). The signal applied to the gate of the switch Q is a pulse train with constant frequency f (and constant period T), but with varying pulse width
t. The amplitude of the signal applied to the gate will cause the switch to transition between
11-7

Chapter 11 - Motor Controls cutoff and saturation with very short rise and fall times. The relative values of R and L are selected such that the time constant J = L/R is at least 10 times the period T of the pulse train applied to the gate of Q. The long L/R time constant will have a low-pass filtering effect on the chopped output of the switch Q, and will effectively smooth the current into dc with very little ac component.

Q

L

V

D

+

R

t
T
Figure 11-5 - Simple dc Switch Voltage Controller
For the switch Q, the ratio of the on-time t to the period T is defined as the duty cycle, and is represented as a percentage between zero and 100%. If we apply a pulse train with a 0% duty cycle to the gate of the switch, the switch will remain off all of the time and the voltage on the resistor R will obviously be zero. In a similar manner, if we apply a pulse train with a duty cycle of 100%, the switch will remain on all the time, the diode D will be reverse biased, and, after 5 time constants, the voltage on the resistor R will be V.
For any duty cycle between 0% and 100%, the average resistor voltage will be a corresponding percentage of the voltage V. For example, if we adjust the applied gate pulses so that the duty cycle is 35% (i.e., ON for 35% of the time, OFF for 65% of the time), then the voltage on the resistor R will be 35% of the input voltage V. This is because, during the time that the switch is ON, the inductor L will store energy; during the time the switch is OFF, the inductor will give up some of its stored energy keeping current flowing in the circuit through inductor L, resistor R, and the forward biased diode D (in this application, the diode is called a freewheeling diode or commutation diode). Although the operating frequency of the switch will affect the amplitude of the ac ripple voltage on
R, it will not affect the average voltage. The average voltage is controlled by the duty cycle of the switch. Whenever the duty cycle is changed, the voltage on the resistor will settle within five L/R time constants.
Although this seems to be a rather involved method of simply controlling the voltage on a load, there is one major advantage in using this method. Consider the power dissipation of the switch during the times when it is either OFF or ON. The power
11-8

Chapter 11 - Motor Controls dissipated by any component in a dc circuit is simply the voltage drop on the component times the current through the component. Assuming an ideal switch, when the switch is
OFF, the current will be zero resulting in zero power dissipation. Similarly, when the switch is ON, the voltage drop will be near-zero which also results in near-zero power dissipation.
However, when the switch changes state, there is a very short period of time when the voltage and current are simultaneously non-zero and the switch will dissipate power. For this reason, when constructing circuits of this type, the most important design considerations are the on-resistance of the switch, the off-state leakage current of the switch, the rise and fall times of the pulse train, and the speed at which the switch can change states (which is usually a function of the inter-electrode capacitance within the switch). If these parameters are carefully controlled, it is not unusual for this circuit to have an efficiency that is in the high 90% range.
With this analysis in mind, consider the electrical model of the armature of a dc motor shown in Figure 11-6. Since the armature windings are made from copper wire, there will be distributed resistance in the coils Ra, and the coils themselves will give the armature distributed inductance La. Therefore, we generally model the armature as a lumped resistance and a lumped inductance connected in series. Some armature models include a brush and commutator voltage drop component (called brush drop), but for the purpose of this analysis, since the brush drop is relatively constant and small, adding this component will not affect the outcome.
La
A

dc Motor
Armature

Ra

Figure 11-6 - dc Motor Armature Model
Since we can model the dc motor armature as a series resistance and inductance, we can substitute the armature in place of the resistor and inductor in our dc switch circuit in Figure 11-5. This modified circuit is shown in Figure 11-7.

11-9

Chapter 11 - Motor Controls

Q
V

D

+

dc
Control

A

dc Motor
Armature

Pulse W idth
Modulator

Figure 11-7 - dc Motor Speed Control
Note in Figure 11-7 that a pulse width modulator has been added. This is a subsystem that converts a dc control input voltage to a constant-frequency variable duty cycle pulse train. The complexity of this function block depends on the sophistication of the circuit, and can be as simple as a 555 integrated circuit timer or as complex as a single board microcontroller. Since the heart of this entire control circuit is the pulse width modulator, the entire system is generally called a pulse width modulator motor speed control. Although the circuit in Figure 11-7 illustrates how a dc motor can be controlled using a pulse width modulator switch, there is a minor problem in that the switching transistor is connected as a source follower (common drain) amplifier. This circuit configuration does not switch as fast nor does it saturate as well as the grounded source configuration, resulting in the transistor dissipating excessive power. Therefore, we will improve the circuit by exchanging the positions of the motor armature and the switch. This circuit is shown in Figure 11-8.

11-10

Chapter 11 - Motor Controls
D

V

A

+

dc Motor
Armature

Q dc Control

Pulse Width
Modulator

Figure 11-8 - Improved Pulse Width Modulator dc Motor Speed Controller

dc Motor Control with ac Power Source
Obviously, in order to operate a dc motor from an ac source, the ac power must first be converted to dc. It should be noted that the dc used to operate a dc motor need not be a continuous non-varying voltage. It is permissible to provide dc power in the form of halfwave rectified or full-wave rectified power, or even pulses of power (as in the pulse width modulation scheme discussed earlier). Generally speaking, as long as the polarity of the voltage applied to the armature does not reverse, the waveshape is not critical. In its simplest form, a full wave rectifier circuit shown in Figure 11-9 will power a dc motor armature. However, in this circuit the average dc voltage applied to the armature will be dependent on the ac line voltage. If we desire to control the speed of the motor, we would need the ability to vary the ac line voltage.

A

ac Line

Figure 11-9 - Full Wave Rectifier dc Motor Supply
11-11

Chapter 11 - Motor Controls
To provide control over the average dc voltage applied to the motor without the need to vary the line voltage, we will replace two of the rectifier diodes in our bridge with silicon controlled rectifiers (SCRs) as shown in Figure 11-10.
Control Input

Phase Angle
Firing Control Circuit
SCR1
D1
A

ac Line
D2

D3

SCR2

Figure 11-10 - SCR dc Motor Control Circuit
Note in the circuit in Figure 11-10 that it is not necessary for all four rectifier diodes to be SCRs. The reason is that the remaining two diodes, D1 and D2, are simply steering diodes that route the return current from the armature back to the opposite side of the ac line. Therefore, we can completely control current flow in the circuit with the two SCRs shown. The phase angle firing control circuit monitors the sine wave of the ac line and produces a precisely timed pulse to the gate of each of the SCRs. As we will see, this will ultimately control the magnitude of the average dc voltage applied to the motor armature.
We will begin analyzing our circuit using the two extreme modes of operation, which are when the SCRs are fully OFF and fully ON. First, assume that the firing control circuit produces no signal to the gates of the SCRs. In this case, the SCRs will never fire and there will be zero current and zero voltage applied to the motor armature. In the other extreme, assume that the firing control circuit provides a short pulse to the gate of each
SCR at the instant that the anode to cathode voltage (VA-K) on the SCR becomes positive
(which occurs at zero degrees in the applied sine wave for SCR1 and 180 degrees for
SCR2). When this occurs, the SCRs will alternately fire and remain fired for their entire respective half cycle of the sine wave. In this case, the two SCRs will act as if they are rectifier diodes and the circuit will perform the same as that in Figure 11-9 with the motor operating at full speed.
Now consider the condition in which the SCRs are fired at some delayed time after their respective anode to cathode voltages (VA-K) become positive. In this case, there will be a portion of the half wave rectified sine wave missing from the output waveform, which is the portion from the time the waveform starts at zero until the time the SCR is fired.
When we fire the SCRs at some delayed time, we generally measure this time delay as a
11-12

Chapter 11 - Motor Controls trigonometric angle (called the firing angle) with respect to the positive-slope zero crossing of the sine wave of the line voltage. Figure 11-11 shows the armature voltage for various firing angles between 0° and 180°. Notice that as the SCR firing angle increases from 0° to 180°, the motor armature voltage decreases from full voltage to zero.

11-13

150
100
50
0
-50
-100
-150
-200
180

270 360 450
Angle (Degrees)

540

630

Firing Angle = 60 Degrees
200
150
100
50
0
-50
-100
-150
-200
0

90

180

270 360 450
Angle (Degrees)

540

630

Firing Angle = 120 Degrees
150
100
50
0
-50
-100
-150
-200
90

180

270 360 450
Angle (Degrees)

540

630

150
100
50
0
-50
-100
-150
-200
0

90

180

270 360 450
Angle (Degrees)

540

720

-50
-100
-150
-200
0

90

180

270 360 450
Angle (Degrees)

540

Firing Angle = 150 Degrees
200
150
100
50
0
-50
-100
-150
-200

720

0

90

180

270 360 450
Angle (Degrees)

540

150
100
50
0
-50
-100
-150
-200
180

630

150
100
50
0

Firing Angle = 180 Degrees

90

720

Firing Angle = 90 Degrees

200

0

630

200

720

200

0

Firing Angle = 30 Degrees
200

720

A r m a tu r e V o lta g e (V o

90

A r m a tu r e V o lta g e (V o

A r m a tu r e V o lta g e (V o

0

A r m a tu r e V o lta g e (V o

A r m a tu r e V o lta g e (V o

Firing Angle = 0 Degrees
200

A r m a tu r e V o lta g e (V o

A r m a tu r e V o lta g e (V o

Chapter 11 - Motor Controls

270 360 450
Angle (Degrees)

540

630

720

Figure 11-11 - Armature Voltage for Various Firing Angles
11-14

630

720

Chapter 11 - Motor Controls
The circuit in Figure 11-10 is designed to operate from single phase power. For most small horsepower applications, single phase power is sufficient to operate the motor.
However, for large dc motors, 3-phase power is more suitable since, for the same size motor, it will reduce the ac line current, which consequentially reduces the wire size and power losses in the feeder circuits. The circuit shown in Figure 11-12 is a simplified 3phase SCR control and rectifier for a dc motor that uses the same SCR firing angle control technique to control the motor armature voltage.
Control Input

fA ac Line

fB fC Phase Angle
Firing Control Circuit
SCR1
SCR2
D3

SCR3
D1

A

D2
D3

Figure 11-12 - 3-Phase Powered dc Motor Speed Control
There are other more sophisticated techniques for controlling the speed of a dc motor, but most are variations on the two techniques covered above. DC motor speed control systems are available as off the shelf units and are usually controlled by a dc voltage input, typically 0 - 10 volts dc, which can be easily provided by a PLC’s analog output. 11-6. Variable Speed (Variable Frequency) AC Motor Drive
As mentioned earlier, if we wish to control the speed of an AC induction motor and produce rated torque throughout the speed range, we must vary the frequency of the applied voltage. This sounds relatively simple; however, there is one underlying problem that affects this approach. For inductors (such as induction motors), as the frequency of an applied voltage is decreased, the magnetic flux increases. Therefore as the frequency is decreased, if the voltage is maintained constant, the core of the inductor (the motor stator) will magnetically saturate, the line current will increase drastically, and it will overheat and fail. In order to maintain a constant flux, as we reduce the frequency, we must reduce the applied voltage by the same proportion. This technique is commonly applied when operating a 60Hz induction motor on a 50Hz line. The motor will operate safely and efficiently if we reduce the 50 Hz line voltage to 50/60 (or 83.3%) of the motor’s rated nameplate voltage. This principle applies to the operation of an induction motor at
11-15

Chapter 11 - Motor Controls any frequency; that is, the ratio of the frequency to line voltage f/V must be maintained constant. Therefore, if we wish to construct an electronic system to produce a varying frequency to control the speed of an induction motor, it must also be capable of varying its output voltage proportional to the output frequency.
It is important to recognize that when operating a motor at reduced speed, although the motor can deliver rated torque, it cannot deliver rated horsepower. The reason for this is that the horsepower output of any rotating machine is proportional to the product of the speed and torque. Therefore, if we reduce the speed and operate the motor at rated torque, the horsepower output will be reduced by the speed reduction ratio. Operating an induction motor at reduced speed and rated horsepower will cause excessive line current, overheating, and eventual failure of the motor.
Earlier, we investigated the technique of using a pulse width modulation (PWM) technique to vary the dc voltage applied to the armature of a dc motor. Assume, for this discussion we construct a second pulse width modulator but design it to produce negative pulses instead of positive pulses. We could connect the outputs of the two circuits in parallel to our load (a motor), and by carefully controlling which of the two PWMs is operating at any given time and the duty cycle of each, we can produce any time-varying voltage with a peak voltage amplitude between +V and -V.
Such a device is capable of producing any wave shape of any frequency and of any peak to peak voltage amplitude (within the maximum voltage capability of the PWMs). Of course, for motor control applications, the desired waveshape will be a sine wave.
Practically speaking, in order to do this we would most likely need a microprocessor controlling the system, where the microprocessor processes the desired frequency to obtain the correct line voltage required and the corresponding PWM duty cycles to produce a sine wave of the correct voltage amplitude and of the desired frequency.
The output waveform of such a device (called a variable frequency drive, or VFD) is shown in Figure 11-13. Superimposed on the pulse waveform is the desired sine wave.
Notice that during the 0-180 degrees portion of the waveform, the positive voltage PWM is operating, and during the 180-360 degrees portion, the negative PWM is operating. Also notice that during each half cycle, the duty cycle starts at 0%, increases to nearly 100% and then decreases to 0%. The duty cycle of each pulse is calculated and precisely timed by the PWM controller (the microprocessor) so that the average of the pulses approximates the desired sine wave.

11-16

Chapter 11 - Motor Controls

Voltage (Volts)

200
100
0
-100
-200
0

90

180
Angle (degrees)

270

360

Figure 11-13 - Desired Sine Wave and
Pulse Width Modulated Waveform (One Phase)

The amplitude of the voltage output of the VFD is controlled by proportionally adjusting the width of the all the pulses. For example, if we were to reduce all of the pulses to 50% of their normal amplitude, the average output waveform would still be a sine wave, but would be 50% of the amplitude of the original waveform.
Since the VFD will be connected to an inductive device (an induction motor), the pulse waveform shown in Figure 11-13 is generally not viewable using an oscilloscope.
The inductance of the motor will smooth the pulses in much the same manner as the dc motor smooths the PWM output, which, for the VFD, will result in voltage and current waveforms that are nearly sinusoidal.
It is important to recognize that the previous discussion is highly theoretical and over simplified to make the concept more understandable. When a VFD is connected to an induction motor, there are many other non-ideal characteristics that appear that are caused by the inductance of the motor and its magnetic characteristics, such as counter EMF, harmonics, energy storage, and power factor, which make the design or VFDs much more complex than can be comprehensively covered in this text. However, present day VFD technology utilizes the versatility of the internal microprocessor to overcome most of these
11-17

Chapter 11 - Motor Controls adverse characteristics, making the selection and application of a VFD relatively easy for the end-user.
In addition to performing simple variable frequency speed control of an induction motor, most VFDs also provide a wealth of features that make the system more versatile and provide protection for the motor being controlled. These include features such as overcurrent monitoring, automatic adjustable overload trip, speed ramping, ramp shaping, rotation direction control, and dynamic braking. Some VFDs have the capability to operate from a single phase line while providing 3-phase power to the motor. Selection of a VFD usually requires simply knowing the line voltage, and motor’s rated input voltage and horsepower. Most VFDs can be controlled from a PLC by providing an analog (usually 0-10 volts) dc signal from the PLC to the VFD which controls the VFD between zero and rated frequency. Direction control is usually done using a discrete output from the PLC to the
VFD. Although VFDs are very reliable, designer should include a contactor to control the main power to the VFD. Because an electronic failure in the VFD or a line voltage disturbance can cause the VFD to operate unpredictably, it is unwise to allow the VFD to maintain the machine stopped while an operator accesses the moving parts of the machine.
11-7. Summary
It is important for the machine designer to be very familiar with various methods of controlling ac and dc motor. These range from the simple motor starter to the sophisticated pulse width modulated (PWM) dc motor controls and the variable frequency (VFD) ac motor controllers. New advances in solid state power electronics have made the speed control of both ac and dc motors simple, efficient, and relatively inexpensive. The pulse width modulator (PWM) system is capable of efficiently controlling the speed of a dc motor by controlling the average armature voltage of the motor. The variable frequency ac motor drive (VFD) is capable of controlling the speed of an ac induction motor by controlling both the frequency and amplitude of the applied 3-phase power. As a result, the VFD has made it possible to use ac induction motors for variable speed applications that, until recently, were best performed by dc motors.

11-18

Chapter 11 - Motor Controls
Chapter 11 Review Question and Problems
1.
2.
3.

4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Explain the difference between a motor starter and a simple on-off switch.
For the circuit show in Figure 11-2, assume the Stop switch is defective and remains closed all the time, even when it is pressed. How can the machine be stopped?
For the circuit show in Figure 11-2, when the Start switch is pressed, the motor starter contactor energizes as usual. However, when the Start switch is released, the contactor de-energizes and the motor stops. What is the most likely cause of this problem?
A pulse width modulation dc motor speed control is capable of 125 volts dc maximum output. What is the output voltage when the PWM is operating at
45% duty cycle?
For the PWM in problem 4, what duty cycle is required if the desired output voltage is 90 volts dc?
An ac induction motor is rated at 1750 rpm with a line frequency of 60Hz. If the motor is operated on a 50 Hz line, what will be its approximate speed?
An ac induction motor is rated at 1175 rpm, 480V, 60 Hz 3-phase. If we reduce the motor speed by reducing the line frequency to 25 Hz, what should be the line voltage?
An induction motor is rated at 30 hp 1175 rpm. If we connect the motor to a variable frequency ac drive and operate the motor at 900 rpm, what is the maximum horsepower the motor can safely deliver?

11-19

Chapter 12 - System Integrity and Safety

Chapter 12 - System Integrity and Safety
12-1. Objectives
Upon completion of this chapter, you will know
” how to

”
”
”
”.
”.
”.

12-2. Introduction
In addition to being able to design and program an efficient working control system, it is important for the system designer to be well aware of other non-electrical and nonsoftware related issues. These are issues that can cause the best and most clever designs to fail prematurely, work intermittently, or worse, to be a safety hazard. In this chapter, we will investigate some of the tools and procedures available to the designer so that the system will work well, work safely, and work with minimal down-time.
12-3. System Integrity
It is obvious that we would never consider exposing a twisted copper wire connection to the outdoor weather. Surely, the weather would eventually tarnish and corrode the connection, and the connection would either become intermittent or fail altogether. But what if the connection were outdoors, but under a roof - say a carport?
Would a bare twisted wire connection be acceptable? And what if the same type of connection were used in a ceiling light fixture for an indoor swimming pool? Surely the chlorine used to purify the pool water will have some adverse affect on the twisted copper wires. In general, how does a system designer know how to ward off environmental effects so that they will not cause premature failure of the system? One solution is to put all of the electrical equipment inside an enclosure, or electrical box. But how do we know how well the electrical box will ward off the same environmental effects. Can we be sure it will not leak in a driving rainstorm? The answer lies in guidelines set forth by the National Electrical
Manufacturers Association (NEMA), and the International Electrotechnical Commission
(IEC) regarding electrical enclosures. NEMA is a United States based association, while
12-1

Chapter 12 - System Integrity and Safety
IEC is European Based. Both have set forth similar standards by which manufacturers rate their products based on how impervious they are to environmental conditions. NEMA assigns a NEMA number to each classification, while IEC assigns an IP (Index of
Protection) number. It is possible, to some extent, to be able to cross reference NEMA and
IEC classes; however, there is not an exact one-to-one relationship between the two.
NEMA and IEC ratings are based mostly on the enclosure’s ability to protect the equipment inside from accidental body contact, dust, splashing water, direct hosedown, rain, sleet, ice, oil, coolant, and corrosive agents. Since the designer knows the environment in which the equipment is to be used, it is relatively simple to lookup the required protection in a NEMA or IEC table and then specify the appropriate NEMA or IP number when purchasing the equipment. Generally speaking, the NEMA and IP numbers are assigned so that the lower numbers provide the least protection while the highest numbers provide the best protection. Because of this, the cost of a NEMA or IEC rated enclosure is usually directly proportional to the NEMA or IP number.
Consider the NEMA enclosure rating table below. If for example, we needed an enclosure to protect equipment from usual outdoor weather conditions, then a NEMA 3 or
NEMA 4 enclosure would be acceptable. However, if the enclosure were near the ocean or a swimming pool where it would be exposed to corrosive salt water or chlorinated water splash, then a NEMA 4X would be a better choice. In a similar manner, we can conclude that underwater equipment must be NEMA 6P rated, and that an enclosure that is to be mounted on a hydraulic pump should be NEMA 12 or NEMA 13.

12-2

Chapter 12 - System Integrity and Safety

NEMA Enclosure Ratings
NEMA #

1

2

3

3S

4

4X

6

6P

12

13

Suggested Usage (I=Indoor, O=Outdoor)

I

I

O

O

I/O

I/O

I/O

I/O

I

I

Accidental Body Contact

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

Falling Dirt

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

Dust, Lint, Fibers (non volatile)

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

Windblown Dust

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

Falling Liquid, Light Splash

X

Hosedown, Heavy Splash
Rain, Snow, Sleet

X

Ice Buildup

X
X

Oil or Coolant Seepage
Oil or Coolant Spray or Wash

X

Occasional Submersion

X

Prolonged Submersion

X
X

Corrosive Agents

X

X

It would seem logical to simply use NEMA 6P for everything (except oil and coolant exposure). However, the very high cost of NEMA 6P enclosures prohibits their use in nonsubmerged applications. Therefore, because of cost constraints, it is also important to avoid overspecifying a NEMA enclosure.
IEC enclosure numbers address environmental issues as does NEMA. However, the IEC numbers also address safety issues. In particular, they specify the amount of personal protection the enclosure offers in keeping out intrusion by foreign bodies, such as hands, fingers, tools, and screws. IP numbers are always two-digit numbers. The leftmost
(tens) digit specifies the protection against intrusion by foreign bodies while the rightmost
(units) digit specifies the environmental protection provided by the enclosure. The IEC IP number ratings are shown in the table below.

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IEC IP Enclosure Ratings
No Protection

Vert.
Water

Inclined
Water

Spray
Water

Splash
Water

Hose

Flooding

Dripping

IP_0

IP_1

IP_2

IP_3

IP_4

IP_5

IP_6

IP_7

No Protection

IP0_

X

Foreign Obj.
50mm max
(hand)

IP1_

X

X

X

Foreign Obj.
12.5mm max
(finger)

IP2_

X

X

X

X

Foreign Obj.
2.5mm max
(tools)

IP3_

X

X

X

X

X

Foreign Obj.
1mm max
(screws, nails)

IP4_

X

X

X

X

X

Dust
Protected

IP5_

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

Dust Tight

IP6_

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

X

There is also a rating of IPx8 which is waterproof. There is no tens digit on this rating because since it is waterproof, is it also naturally impervious to any and all foreign objects. Also, since there is only one column 7 rating (which is IP67), it is referred to as either IP67 or IPx7. In the IP_2 column, “inclined water” refers to rain or drip up to 15 degree from vertical, and in the IP_3 column, spray water can be up to 60 degrees from vertical. As some examples of how to use the IEC table, assume we wish to have an enclosure that will keep out rain (inclined water) and not allow tools to be pushed into any openings. Locating those items in the columns and rows, we find that an IP32 enclosure is needed. Additionally, an enclosure that will keep out hands and offers no environmental protection is an IP10 enclosure. Most consumer electronics products (stereos, televisions,
VCRs, etc.) are IP40.
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12-4. Equipment Temperature Considerations
It is a proven fact that the length of life of an electronic device is inversely proportional to the temperature at which it is operated. In other words, to make electronic equipment last longer, it should be operated in a low temperature environment. Obviously, it is impractical to refrigerate controls installations. However, it is important to take necessary steps to assure that the equipment does not overheat, nor exceed manufacturer’s specifications of maximum allowable operating temperature.
When electrical equipment is installed inside a NEMA or IEC enclosure, it will most certainly produce heat when powered which will raise the temperature inside the enclosure.
It is important that this heat be somehow dissipated. Since most cabinets used in an often dirty manufacturing environment are sealed (to keep out dirt and dust), the most popular way to do this is to use the cabinet itself as a heat sink. Generally, the cabinet is made of steel and is bolted to a beam or to the metal side of the machine, which improves the heat sinking capability of the enclosure. If this type of enclosure mounting is not available, the temperature of the inside of the enclosure should be measured under worst case conditions; that is with all equipment in the enclosure operating under worst case load conditions. Another way of controlling temperature inside and enclosure is by using a cooling fan. However, this will require screens and filters to cleanse the air being drawn into the cabinet. This, in turn, increases periodic maintenance to clean the screens and filters.
12-5. Fail Safe Wiring and Programming
In most examples in the earlier chapters of this text, we used all normally open momentary pushbutton switches connected to PLCs. However, what would happen if we used a normally open pushbutton switch for a stop switch, and one of the wires on the switch became loose or broken, as shown in Figure 12-1? Naturally, when we press the stop switch, the PLC will not receive a signal input, and the machine will simply continue running. 12-5

Chapter 12 - System Integrity and Safety
START

PLC

RUN

OUT1

IN2

IN3

CR1

OUT2

OUT3

IN4

PB1

IN1

OUT4

STOP
PB2

Broken Wire

120V
CONTROL
VOLTAGE

120V
CONTROL
VOLTAGE
COM

COM

Figure 12-1 - Non-Failsafe Wiring of
STOP Switch
The problem is that a design of this type is not failsafe. Failsafe design is a method of designing control systems such that if a critical component in the system fails, the system immediately becomes disabled.
Let us reconsider our stop switch example, except this time, we will have the STOP switch provide a signal to the PLC when we DO NOT want to it to stop. In other words, we will use a normally closed (N/C) pushbutton switch that, when pressed, will break the circuit. This change will also require that we invert the STOP switch signal in the PLC ladder program. Then if one of the wires on the STOP switch breaks as shown in
Figure 12-2, the PLC no longer “sees” an input from the STOP switch. The PLC will interpret this as if someone has pressed the switch, and it will stop the machine. In addition, as long as the PLC program is written such that the STOP overrides the START, then if the wire on the STOP switch breaks, not only will the machine stop, but pressing the
START switch will have no effect either.

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START

PLC

RUN

OUT1

IN2

IN3

CR1

OUT2

OUT3

IN4

PB1

IN1

OUT4

STOP

PB2
Broken Wire

120V
CONTROL
VOLTAGE

120V
CONTROL
VOLTAGE
COM

COM

Figure 12-2 - Failsafe Wiring of STOP Switch

Failsafe wiring applies to PLC outputs also. Consider an application where a PLC is to control a crane. Naturally there will be a disk braking system that will lock the wench and prevent a load on the crane from being lowered. In order to be failsafe, this braking system needs to be on when electrical power is off. In other words, it needs to be held on by mechanical spring pressure and released by electrical, hydraulic, pneumatic, or any other method. In doing so, any failure of the powering system will cause the breaking system to loose power and the spring will automatically apply the brake. This means that it requires a relay contact closure from the PLC output to release the brake, instead of applying the brake.
Since emergency stop switches are critical system components, it is important that these always operate correctly and that they are not buffered by some other electronic system. Emergency stop switches are always connected in series with the power line of the control system and, when pressed, will interrupt power to the controls. When this happens, failsafe output design will handle the disabling and halting of the system.
Since PLC ladder programming is simply an extension of hard wiring, it is important to consider failsafe wiring when programming also. Consider the start/stop program rung shown in Figure 12-3. This rung will appear to work normally; that is, when the START is momentarily pressed, relay RUN switches on and remains on. When STOP is pressed,
RUN switches off. However, consider what happens when both START and STOP are
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Chapter 12 - System Integrity and Safety pressed simultaneously. For this program, START will override STOP and RUN will switch on as long as START is pressed.
| START
RUN
1---| |-------------------------------------------------------------------(OUT)|
|
RUN
STOP |
|---| |-------|/|---+
|

Figure 12-3 - Unsafe Start/Stop Program
Now consider an improved version of this program shown in Figure 12-4. Notice that by moving the STOP contact into the main part of the rung, the START switch can no longer override the STOP. This program is considered safer than the one in Figure 12-3.
| START
STOP
RUN
1---| |-------|/|---------------------------------------------------------(OUT)|
|
RUN
|
|---| |---+
|
|

Figure 12-4 - Improved Start/Stop Program With Overriding STOP
Generally, PLCs are extremely reliable devices. Most PLC failures can be attributed to application errors (overvoltage on inputs, overcurrents on outputs), or extremely harsh environmental conditions, such as over-temperature or lightening strike, to name a few.
However, there are some applications where even more reliability is desired. These include applications where a PLC failure could result in injury or loss of life. For these applications, the designer must be especially careful to consider what will happen if power fails, and what will happen if the PLC should fail with one or more outputs stuck ON or stuck OFF.
Having a power failure on a PLC system is a situation that can be handled by failsafe design. However, the situation in which a PLC fails to operate correctly can be catastrophic, and no amount of failsafe design using a single PLC can prevent this. This situation can be best handled by using redundant PLC design. In this case, two identical
PLCs are used that are running identical programs. The inputs of the PLCs are wired in parallel, and the outputs of the PLC are wired in series (naturally, to do this the outputs must be of the mechanical relay type)
Consider the redundant PLC system shown in Figure 12-5. For this system, the program is written so that when PB1 is pressed, IN1 on both PLC1 and PLC2 is energized.
Since both PLCs are running the same program, they will both switch on their OUT1 relay.
Since PLC1 OUT1 and PLC2 OUT1 are connected in series, when they both switch on, relay CR1 will be energized. However, assume that the PLC1 OUT1 relay becomes stuck
ON because of either a relay failure or a PLC1 firmware crash. In this case, assuming
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Chapter 12 - System Integrity and Safety
PLC2 is still operating normally, its OUT1 will also continue to operate normally switching
CR1 on and off properly. Conversely, if PLC1 OUT1 fails in the stuck OFF position, then
CR1 will not operate and the machine will fail to run. In either case failure of one PLC does not create an unsafe condition.
START
PB1
STOP

PLC1
IN1

RUN

CR1

OUT1
IN2

PB2

OUT2

COM

PLC2
IN1
OUT1
IN2
OUT2

COM

Figure 12-5 - Increasing Reliability by Redundant
PLC Design
One drawback to the redundant system shown in Figure 12-5 is that if one of the relays fails in the stuck ON condition, the system will continue to function normally.
Although this is not hazardous, it defeats the purpose of having two PLCs in the system, which is to increase the reliability and safety. It would be helpful to have the PLC’s identify when this occurs and give some indication of a PLC fault condition. This is commonly done by a method called output readback. In this case, the inputs and outputs must be of the same voltage type (e.g. 120VAC), and additional inputs are purchased for the PLCs so that outputs can be wired back to unused inputs. Then additional code is added to the programs to compare the external readback signal to the internal signal that produced the output. This is done using the disagreement (XOR) circuit. Any disagreement is cause for a fault condition.

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12-6. Safety Interlocks
When designing control systems for heavy machinery, robotics, or high voltage systems, it is imperative that personnel are prevented from coming in contact with the equipment while it is energized. However, since maintenance personnel must have access to the equipment from time to time, it is necessary to have doors, gates, and access panels to the equipment. Therefore, it is a requirement for control systems to monitor the access points to assure that they are not opened when the equipment is energized, or conversely, that the equipment cannot be energized while the access points are opened. This monitoring method is done with interlocks.
Interlock Switches
The simplest type of interlock uses a limit switch. For example, consider the door on a microwave oven. While the door is opened, the oven will not operate. Also, if the door is opened while the oven is operating, it will automatically switch off. The reason for this is that a limit switch is positioned inside on the door latch such that when the door is unlatched, the switch is opened, and power is removed from the control circuitry. The most common drawback to switch interlocks is that they are easy to defeat. Generally, a match stick, screwdriver, or any other foreign object can be jammed into the switch mechanism to force the machine to operate. Designers go to great lengths to design interlock mechanisms that cannot be defeated.
More sophisticated interlock system can be used in lieu of limit switches. These include proximity sensors, keylocks, optical sensors, magnetically operated switches, and various combinations of these. For example, consider the interlock shown in Figure 12-6.
This is a combination deadbolt and interlock switch. When the deadbolt is closed as shown on the left, a plunger and springs activate a switch which enables the machine to be operated. When the deadbolt is opened as shown on the right, the switch opens also.

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Figure 12-6 - Deadbolt Interlock Switch
(Scientific Technologies, Inc.)

Pressure Sensitive Mat Switch
The pressure sensitive mat switch is simply a mat that will close an electrical connection when force is applied to the mat. This is illustrated in Figure 12-7. They are available in many sizes, and can be used for a wide variety of safety applications. For example, within a fenced area in which a robot operates, a mat such as this will sense when someone has stepped within the reach of the robot arm, and can disable the robot.
Another application is to place a mat in front of the operator panel of a machine. Then connect the mat such that if the contacts in the mat are not closed, the machine will not run.
Keep in mind that if they are used in “deadman’s switch” applications such as this, that they can be defeated by simply sitting a heavy object on the mat.

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Figure 12-7 - Pressure Sensitive Mat Switch
(Scientific Technologies, Inc.)

Pull Ropes
City transit buses use pull ropes on each side of the bus so that a rider can pull the rope, which switches on a buzzer notifying the driver that they wish to get off at the next stop. The technique is popular because only one switch is needed per pull rope and the rope can be of most any desired length putting it within reach over a large area. In short, it is a simple, reliable, and inexpensive mechanism. This same idea can be applied to machine controls as an emergency shutoff method. Figure 12-8 shows a pull rope interlock. The rope is securely fastened to a fixed thimble on one end and to a pull switch on the other. A turnbuckle tensioner allows for the slack to be adjusted out of the rope, and eye bolts support the rope. If necessary, the rope can even be routed round corners using pulleys. In use, the switch is N/C and connected into the controls as an additional STOP switch. When the rope is pulled by anyone, the switch contacts open and the machine stops. 12-12

Chapter 12 - System Integrity and Safety

Figure 12-8 - Pull Rope Interlock Switch
(Scientific Technologies, Inc.)

Light Curtains
When it is imperative that an operator’s hands stay out of certain areas of a machine while it is operating, one excellent way to assure this is by using a light curtain. It is basically a “spinoff” of the thru-beam optical sensor; however, instead of the beam being a single straight line, the beam is extended (by scanning) to cover a plane, and the receiver senses the scanning beam over the entire plane. Any object intersecting the light curtain plane causes the electronic circuitry in the light curtain to output a discrete signal which can be used by the control circuitry to shut down the machine. The light used in this system is infrared and pulsed. Since it is infrared, it is invisible and does not distract the machine operator. Since the light is pulsed, it is relatively immune to flourescent lights, arc welding, sunlight, and other light interference.
As shown in Figure 12-9, light curtains generally come in three parts - the transmitter wand, the receiver wand, and the power supply & logic (electronic) enclosure. The transmitter and receiver wands strictly produce and detect the infrared beams that makeup the plane of detection. They are connected by electrical cables to the electronic enclosure, which contains all the necessary circuitry to operate the wands, power the system, make logical decisions based on the interrupted beams, and provide relay outputs. This is a complete “turnkey” stand-alone system. The designer simply supplies AC line power, and connects the relay outputs to the machine controls.

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Figure 12-9 - Light Curtain Components
(Scientific Technologies, Inc.)

If interlock coverage is needed over several planes, the transmitter and receiver wands of the light curtain can be cascaded as shown in Figure 12-10. In this case, two wands are cascaded on each end of the work area. One pair are transmitter wands and the other pair are receiver wands. One pair of vertically positioned wands provides a vertical light curtain directly in front of the operator, and a second pair of horizontally positioned wands provides a horizontal light curtain underneath the work area. By doing this the designer can realize some cost savings, since all the wands can be operated by one electronics enclosure.

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Figure 12-10 - Cascaded Light Curtains
(Scientific Technologies, Inc.)

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Chapter 12 Review Question and Problems
1.

Select the best NEMA number for an electrical box mounted on an above ground swimming pool pump. It will be exposed to outdoor weather and an occasional splash of chlorinated (corrosive) pool water.

2.

Select the best IEC IP number for an electrical box used in a textile mill. It must be dust tight and be able to withstand an occasional water hosedown by the cleaning crew.

3.

Convert the IEC rating IP64 to the nearest equivalent NEMA rating.

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