...rather than internal mental events. The work of Skinner was rooted in a view that classical conditioning was far too simplistic to be a complete explanation of complex human behavior. He believed that the best way to understand behavior is to look at the causes of an action and its consequences. He called this approach operant conditioning. Operant Conditioning deals with operants - intentional actions that have an effect on the surrounding environment. Skinner set out to identify the processes which made certain operant behaviours more or less likely to occur. Skinner's theory of operant conditioning was based on the work of Thorndike (1905). Edward Thorndike studied learning in animals using a puzzle box to propose the theory known as the 'Law of Effect'. BF Skinner: Operant Conditioning Skinner is regarded as the father of Operant Conditioning, but his work was based on Thorndike’s law of effect. Skinner introduced a new term into the Law of Effect - Reinforcement. Behavior which is reinforced tends to be repeated (i.e. strengthened); behavior which is not reinforced tends to die out-or be extinguished (i.e. weakened). Skinner (1948) studied operant conditioning by conducting experiments using animals which he placed in a 'Skinner Box' which was similar to Thorndike’s puzzle box. B.F. Skinner (1938) coined...
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...harmful” (p. 349). Additions can be developed through operant conditioning. Phobias and addictions are different forms of behaviors just as classical and operant conditioning are responses learn responses. Extinction is also a form of classical conditioning. Both classical and operant conditioning differ in how an individual responds. Phobias and Addictions Phobias are human developed fears. They are fears seem irrational or harmless to other individuals. Phobias can be developed through classical conditioning according to Kowaski and Westen (2011) “In classical conditioning, an environmental stimulus leads to a learned response, through pairing of an unconditioned stimulus with a previously neutral conditioned stimulus” (p. 169). An environmental stimulus anything in an individual’s surroundings that may affect them. A neutral conditioned stimulus is when a response does not happen automatically. This means that an environment that may not affect others has the potential to leave a person frightened based on a negative experience. For example, if a woman got bitten by a dog running towards her as a child, she is more likely to fear a dog running towards her as an adult. The woman may develop a phobia of dogs. Addictions are not part of classical conditioning. Classical conditioning is how surroundings may affect how a person reacts to fears or phobias. Operant conditioning is when an individual is so stimulated by the effects of a learned...
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...Phobias and Addictions Paper Viktorija Canevik-Alex PSY/300 Jacqueline Hall July 20, 2013 University of Phoenix Phobias and Addiction Paper In this paper I will discuss how phobias and addiction are connected to the classical and operant conditioning. I will explain how phobias and addiction are evolve through classical and operant conditioning, what is the difference between classical and operant conditioning, what is extinction and how extinction is accomplish in the classical and operant conditioning. Phobia occur when people are scared or fear without stopping of something genuine and hard to control and usually occur in young age but also it can occur in older age. Phobia is something very common and it influence peoples life every day, but important thing about phobias is that it can be treated. Here are some examples of phobias, like fear from: kissing, drugs, cold, taking medicine, mother-in-law, children, and others. Addiction can occur when people have hard time to control or stop use, do or take something. People can be addictive to many things, not only to alcohol and drugs, people also can be addictive...
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...the person hate them later in life. Another interesting occurrence in humans is addictions. Addiction the state of being enslaved to a habit or practice or to something that is psychologically or physically habit-forming, as narcotics, to such an extent that its cessation causes severe trauma (Dictionary, 2014). When presenting the word addiction, a person might think of something that a person needs and stresses about. For example, a person who smokes may be addicted to cigarettes. Both phobia and addiction are very common in humans. This paper will discuss how phobias can be developed through classical conditioning, how addictions can be developed through operant conditioning, the difference between classical and operate conditioning, and finally what extinction means and how it is achieved in both classical and operant conditioning. First, we will discuss how phobias can be developed through classical conditioning. Classical conditioning was the first type of learning to be studied systematically (Kowalski & Westen, 2011). Ivan Pavlov, who was a Russian phycologist, started studies of the so called classical conditioning from studies with dogs and the stimulations that caused dogs to salivate. Pavlov discovered that when food was present with...
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...Operant Conditioning B.F Skinner based his work on the work of Edward Thorndike who developed the law of effect theory (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2013). Through his work Skinner went on to identify fundamental principles of learning, based on experiments with pigeons and rats. From these experiments, Skinner developed an explanation as for how humans learn behaviors or change behaviors, and went on to infer that patterns of reinforcement shape behavior, which is operant conditioning. Comparing and contrasting positive and negative reinforcement in operant conditioning gives an understanding of how both are a necessity in operant conditioning. Both positive and negative reinforcement are a necessity in operant conditioning; one form of reinforcement is more effective than the other. Several reasons exist to why one form of reinforcement is more effective than the other. A given scenario can show how to apply operant conditioning to shape behavior and how the creation of a reinforcement schedule can apply to a certain selected behavior. B. F. Skinner developed the “term” operant conditioning in 1937 (Staddon& Cerutti, 2003). Skinner's theory of operant conditioning explains how organisms acquire learned behaviors that they exhibit. The main focus of operant conditioning is to use reinforcement as a reward or punishment to increase or decrease the likelihood of behavior (Staddon & Cerutti, 2003). Operant conditioning is a means or method of learning, which occurs through...
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...Behaviorism as a Theory of Personality: A Critical Look Payal Naik Northwestern University This paper explores the theory of behaviorism and evaluates its effectiveness as a theory of personality. It takes into consideration all aspects of the behaviorism theory, including Pavlov's classical conditioning and Skinner's operant conditioning. Additional research in this field by scientists such as Thorndike is also included. As a result of this critical look at behaviorism, its weaknesses as a comprehensive personality theory are revealed. At the same time, its merits when restricted to certain areas of psychology and treatment of disorders are discussed. For as long as human beings can remember, they have always been interested in what makes them who they are and what aspects of their being set each of them apart from others of their species. The answer according to behaviorists is nothing more than the world in which they grew up. Behaviorism is the theory that human nature can be fully understood by the laws inherent in the natural environment. As one of the oldest theories of personality, behaviorism dates back to Descartes, who introduced the idea of a stimulus and called the person a machine dependent on external events whose soul was the ghost in the machine. Behaviorism takes this idea to another level. Although most theories operate to some degree on the assumption that humans have some sort of free will and are moral thinking entities, behaviorism refuses to acknowledge...
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...longing results that a person desires. Operant conditioning is the prudent method to use to reach such goals. B. F. Skinner, the behaviorist that came up with the operant conditioning theory, began the innovative experiments that led to the detection of the effects of positive and negative reinforcements. These two methods are effective tools that alter behavior in any home, school, or social environment that a person could manifest unpredictable behavior. The schedule of reinforcement is also a vital component of the learning process, which maintains positive behavior and a constant rate of response. The theory of operant conditioning Operant conditioning is an acclimatizing method of learning in which an individual’s behavior modifies by the use of positive or negative reinforcement. Therefore, the individual’s behavior changes in use, regularity, and strength. Operant conditioning came to be notable from classical conditioning; entails the conditioning of reflex behaviors, which stimulates by the manifestations of precursor conditions. The difference between the two is that classical conditioning does not uphold its method by the use of reinforcement. Alternatively, operant conditioning uses reinforcement to modify voluntary behavior. American psychologist Burrhus Frederic Skinner, mostly known by B. F. Skinner, was the first to revolutionize the term “operant conditioning.” Skinner develops his theory by creating the operant conditioning box or Skinner box, which he...
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...Operant Conditioning and Child Rearing Most people consider that learning takes place as a natural response from animals to diverse experiences. Nevertheless, learning is part of a more complex process that takes place when humans experience diverse events. Classical and operant conditioning are basic learning forms by which diverse patterns of behavior are acquired when a well-defined stimuli is present in a life experience. This paper discusses how the concept of operant conditioning may be applied in educating a child. Prior to discussing the concept it deems pertinent defining “operant conditioning as a form of cognition in which a voluntary response is strengthened or weakened, depending on its favorable or unfavorable consequences" (Feldman, 2009). The concept contrasts with classical conditioning as the later deals with biological responses to stimuli while operant conditioning relates to voluntary responses performed to generate a desired outcome. In sum, operant conditioning emphasizes the notion that organisms operate on their current environments to produce a wanted result. BF Skinner, the most influential proponent of the concept of operating conditioning wanted to confirm that human behavior changes as a result of the environment changes. In this notion, Skinner attested that operant conditioning is learning in which behavioral responses differ depending on the outcomes such behaviors produce. Consequently, humans are able to willingly control the choices of...
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...Types of learning are Habituation, Classical conditioning, operant conditioning and observational learning. 2. Define classical conditioning, unconditioned stimulus, unconditioned response, conditioned stimulus, and conditioned response. Describe how classical conditioning works by using the stimuli and responses in an example. Classical Conditioning: Ivan Pavlov. 3. Describe the processes of extinction and spontaneous recovery. Give an example of each. Extinction – condition stimulus alone; just the meat powder alone. Spontaneous recovery – condition stimulus alone; response spikes back up after extinction. 4. Define and give an example of stimulus generalization and stimulus discrimination. Stimulus generalization – Stimulus discrimination – 5. Discuss how attention influences which stimulus is linked to the unconditioned stimulus. Define and give an example of second-order conditioning. (from lecture notes) Red light and Tone would now cause stimulation for salivating. 2 Conditional Stimulus. 6. Describe the relationship between classical conditioning and phobias, and classical condition and taste aversion. 7. Define the law of effect. Law of effect- responses followed by positive outcomes are repeated; those followed by negative outcomes are not repeated. Edward L. Thorndike. 8. Define operant conditioning, and explain how it differs from classical conditioning. Operant conditioning - 9. How do we determine what is a reinforcer...
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...Student Name: | Rae Loulache | Check | Requirement | | This checklist is the first page of my paper. | | The “Title Page”, which is formatted in accordance with APA Guidelines, is the second page of my paper. | | The page following the Title Page is marked page #2 and subsequent pages are numbered sequentially. All page markings appear in the lower, right hand corner of the each page. | | My entire paper (everything) is double spaced. | | I have not included an “introduction” or “opening paragraph” and have instead launched right into the review of the assigned topic. | | Each claim or fact presented in my paper is supported with a reference citation. | | For each quotation, there is a citation of the page number(s) from the original source. | | On average, there are no more than one quotation every two pages. | | I have not cited or mentioned the first and last names of authors in the body of my text. I have included first initials and last names of authors on the “Reference” page, which is the last page of my paper. | | I have not cited or mentioned the title of an article or book in the body of my paper, but have instead included this information on the “Reference” page. | | I have made sure that when citing a reference at the end of a sentence that I have placed the period after the parentheses which contains the reference (example). | | My paper does not include any personal stories from my own life or experience. | ...
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...In order to fully comprehend classical and operant conditioning , first we need to understand what exactly behaviourism is and what it focuses on. This essay will outline behaviourism and look at the explanations for how we learn, these include classical and operant conditioning. Both learning methods have several practical applications used to treat people, these will also be discussed. Behaviourist’s believe that when you are born your mind is blank and behaviorism focuses on learning based on the concept that all actions are acquired through conditioning processes. John Watson who was considered “the father of behavioursim”, argued that conditioning occurred through interaction with the environment and our responses to the environmental stimuli shape our behaviours. Conditioning can be separated into two types, classical and operant. Classical Conditioning is defined as the conditioning of reflexes so that they occur in response to new situations. It was first discovered by Ivan Pavlov when he was working on dogs, studying their digestive systems. He noted that the dogs produced saliva when a bell(auditory stimulus) and food (unconditioned stimulus) were presented together. Eventually the bell alone(conditioned stimulus) would come to evoke the salivating response(conditioned response) . The link between the saliva and the bell is defined as conditioned stimulus and response because the dogs were conditioned to associate the bell with receiving the food. However if the...
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...Running head: PHOBIAS AND ADDICTIONS Phobias and Addictions PSY/300 Abstract This essay examines phobias and addictions, how phobias can be developed through operant conditioning and how addictions can be developed through operant conditioning. This essay also examines the distinctions between classical and operant condition and examines “extinction” as it relates to psychological theory and how extinction is achieved in classical and operant conditioning. Phobias and Addictions Numerous psychologists believe that behaviors are learned through conditioning. These conditionings are known as operant, which is based on individual’s response to outside stimuli, and classical conditioning, which is based on the theory that people’s reactions to situations are learned behaviors. Phobias and Addictions can develop when an individual’s ability to function within societal normality’s or adapt to societal complexities are diminished. Addiction is a condition in which the body must have a drug to avoid physical and psychological withdrawal symptoms. Phobias and classical conditioning Phobias are persistent and irrational fears of specific objects, activities, or situations that are excessive and unreasonable, given the reality of the threat. Even though phobias are based on irrational fears, they often cause serious problems in a person’s life. Phobias can result in a person being unable to perform their job, participate in any...
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...lasting change in behavior that is the result of experience. It may also be defined as a relatively enduring or permanent change of behavior that results from previous experience with certain stimuli and responses. Operant Conditioning Operant conditioning is also called instrumental conditioning, is a kind of learning in which an animal or human performs some behavior, and the following consequence (reward or punishment) increases or decreases the chance that an animal or human will again perform that same behavior. The law of effect states that behaviors followed by positive consequences are strengthened, while behaviors followed by negative consequences are weakened. Shaping is a procedure in which an experimenter successively reinforcers behaviors that lead up to or approximately the desired behavior. Note: There is an important difference between a reward and a reinforcer in operant conditioning. • A reward is something, which has value to the person giving the reward, but may not necessarily be of value to the person receiving the reward. • A reinforcer is something, which benefits the person receiving it, and so results in an increase of a certain type of behavior. Skinner identified three types of responses or operants that can follow behavior. Neutral operants: Responses from the environment that neither increase nor decrease the probability of a behavior being repeated. Reinforces are any event that strengthens or increases the behavior it follows. There are two kinds...
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...Operant Conditioning and Our Behaviors What are the factors affecting people’s responses will or will not tend to be repeat? Edward Thorndike had found the theory in his cat experiment. Thorndike stated the law of effect and explained in what situation, animals and humans will tend to repeat their behavior or not. Base on the law of effect, a behaviorist, B.F. Skinner gave ”Operant Conditioning” its name. Operant Conditioning can be a method of improving humans’ or animals’ learning that occur though reinforcement and punishment. Operant Conditioning defines that actions that are followed by reinforcement will be strengthened and makes it more likely to recur. Similarly, the punishment added will weakens a response and makes it less likely to recur. These two components are divided into positive and negative. Moreover, both of these two components are divided into primary level and secondary level. Primary reinforcers can fulfill a physiological need by inherently reinforcing like food, water and comfort temperature. Secondary reinforcers are stimuli that have acquired reinforcing properties though associations with other reinforcers, for instance, awards, money and praise. Besides, primary punishers is an event that is innately punishing , for example cold and shock. Secondary punishers are the event have acquired punishing properties through associations with other punishers. Operant Conditioning usually appearing in our daily life and it can be an efficient...
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...methods such as classical conditioning and operant conditioning. Some phobias are believed to be developed through classical conditioning. If a neutral stimulus is paired with and unconditioned stimulus that creates an unconditioned response that causes fear, a conditioned stimulus of fear will occur every time you encounter the neutral stimulus. In a study performed by JohnWatson, the founder of American behaviorism, he tested the theory of phobias developed through classical conditioning. Choosing a healthy nine month old baby, Little Albert, he experimented with a rat and loud banging of a steel hammer. After being presented with the rat, Little Albert played with the rat and had no fear. After being presented with the steel being banged, he became scared. After a few months of combining the rat with the loud banging, Little Albert became very fearful of the rat. Little Albert learned to associate the loud banging with the rat. This classical conditioning produced a conditioned stimulus or an emotional response of fear and a phobia. Addiction is a learned behavior because the initial pleasure or enjoyment is rewarding. According to the principles of operant conditioning, rewarded behaviors will increase with usage of certain substances. Drugs are substances that cause addictions in humans. Drugs are mostly addicting because they cause Dopamine and serotonin levels to rise. Dopamines are neurotransmitters with wide-ranging effects...
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