...prices rises, each monetary unit buys fewer goods and services. The effect of inflation is not distributed evenly, and as a consequence there are hidden costs to some and benefits to others from this decrease in purchasing power. For example, with inflation lenders or depositors who are paid a fixed rate of interest on loans or deposits will lose purchasing power from their interest earnings, while their borrowers benefit. Individuals or institutions with cash assets will experience a decline in the purchasing power of their holdings. Increases in payments to workers and pensioners often lag behind inflation, especially for those with fixed payments. High or unpredictable inflation rates are regarded as harmful to an overall economy. They add inefficiencies in the market, and make it difficult for companies to budget or plan long-term. Inflation can act as a drag on productivity as companies are forced to shift resources away from products and services in order to focus on profit and losses from currency inflation.Uncertainty about the future purchasing power of money discourages investment and saving. And inflation can impose hidden tax increases, as inflated earnings push taxpayers into higher income tax rates. With high inflation, purchasing power is redistributed from those on fixed incomes such as pensioners towards those with variable incomes whose earnings may better keep pace with the inflation. This redistribution of purchasing power will also occur between international...
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...Causes and Effects of Inflation Author Author Affiliation Causes and Effects of Inflation Supply and demand are one of the key factors when it comes to the economics of a country or region. The two factors happen to be the greatest determinants of prices. In cases where there is a high demand and low supply in a region, the prices of commodities or services provided tend to hike. The hiked prices due to high demand and low supply lead to inflation. Inflation has become a worldwide phenomenon that has seen the cost of living to shoot up in most parts of the world. This increase in the cost of living is attributed to by the increase in the demand for basic commodities and a decrease in their supply due to increased cost of production. Even though the whole world experiences inflation, different countries have different inflation rates depending on their development stages. The major factors that contribute to the increase or decrease in inflation rates in a country include the quality theory of money approach, excessive demand and decrease in supply. This paper will discuss these causes of inflation and the effect they have on the economy as a whole. Causes of Inflation Many factors contribute to the increase or decrease of the inflation rate in a country. Spending habits of individuals happen to contribute greatly to increased inflation rates. A good example is when people have too much money to spend on a given product. The increase in the demand for that particular commodity...
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...resources. There are so many problem faced by developing countries like poverty and unemployment, which puts negative impact on GDP and on the masses. Why are these problems visible in a country like Kenya? Because so many other problem are putting multiplier times negative impact on GDP and other macro economic variables such as inflation. Oil and other petroleum products are scarce commodities in the world. Like prices of other commodities the price of crude oil experiences wide price swings in times of shortage or oversupply. The crude oil price cycle may extend over several years responding to changes in demand as well as OPEC and non-OPEC supply. Throughout much of the twentieth century, the price of U.S. petroleum was heavily regulated through production or price controls. In the post World War II era, U.S. oil prices at the wellhead averaged $28.52 per barrel adjusted for inflation to 2010 dollars. In the absence of price controls, the U.S. price would have tracked the world price averaging near $30.54. Over the same post war period, the median for the domestic and the adjusted world price of crude oil was $20.53 in 2010 prices. Adjusted for inflation, from 1947 to 2010 oil prices only exceeded $20.53 per barrel 50 percent of the time. (See note in the box on right.) Until March 28, 2000 when OPEC adopted the $22-$28 price band for the OPEC basket of crude, real oil prices...
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...enterprises have been seen as one of the strategies that can bring faster development. MFI does therefore play a big role in financing the micro and small enterprises for faster development. MFI’s enterprises are also highly rated for employment creation. They are therefore important in Kenya where unemployment and underemployment are estimated at between 25% and 35% respectively. MFI s’ through the provision of credit influence the type of technology adopted by entrepreneurs and even the rate of technology adoption. Small scale enterprises in the agricultural sector play a big role in providing food, income generation and employment creation. The application of technology is vital in enhancing growth and development of these enterprises. Inflation is vital in the growth and development of any MFI. Both large scale and small scale MFI depend on financial organizations for credit in order to raise capital and also finance any development projects. The large scale organizations have found it much easier to access credit from commercial banks and other financial institutions. The micro and small scale enterprises have not been able to...
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...Unit 6 Project Leo Angelo D. Aguilar Kaplan University CM107-22 Part 1: Sentence Outline: I. Introductory Paragraph Thesis statement: Inflation can have positive effects towards the economy. II. Point #1 Topic Sentence: a.) Inflation can make our goods cheaper for other countries to buy thus increasing demand for goods. b.) Explanation: Due to the value of the dollar decreasing other countries such as Great Britain, Italy, Spain and other European countries with higher money value can purchase more products because the buying power of their money is higher than ours. III. Point #2 Topic Sentence: a.) Due to the increase in demand for goods it can lead to an increase in employment rate. b.) Explanation: As demand increases for goods it also means businesses will have to keep up with it and will require more man power. Increase in man power basically means an increase in employment. IV. Point #3 Topic Sentence: a.) As employment increases due to the increase in demand it also means people have more money to spend. b.) Explanation: When people have more money to spend to buy services and products it can also have a ripple effect on our own economy as it does not only increase demand from an international level but also domestic. V. Conclusion: a.) Conclude major points from the 1st, 2nd, and 3rd paragraph. b.) Make sure it suits the thesis statement. Part 2: The old saying “Money Makes the World Go Round”...
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...Pass-Through Effect of RMB Exchange Rate on China’s Inflation Contents Chapter 2 Literature review 3 2.1 Introduction 3 2.2 Exchange rate pass-through effect 3 2.2.1 Narrowly defined exchange rate pass-through effect 3 2.2.2 Broadly defined exchange rate pass-through effect 4 2.2.3 Complete and incomplete exchange rate pass-through 5 2.3 Relevant theories of exchange rate pass-through 7 2.3.1 Theory of complete exchange rate pass-through 7 2.3.2 Theory of incomplete pass-through 9 2.4 Empirical research on exchange rate pass-through 13 2.5 Summary and reflection 16 Reference 19 Chapter 2 Literature review 2.1 Introduction This chapter reviews the theoretical and empirical researches on exchange rate pass-through effect. Specifically, this chapter firstly introduces the definition of exchange rate pass-through effect, incomplete and complete exchange rate pass-through. Then, this chapter analyses the theory of exchange rate pass-through effect, with focus on the reasons for the common incomplete exchange rate pass-through effect. After theoretical analysis, this chapter reviews and analyses the empirical research on exchange rate pass-through effect. A major part in this section is the review of the perspective and method for analysing exchange rate pass-through effect. Empirical researches generally referred to McCarthy (2000)’s research method, used VAR model, and selected specific area and time window data to empirically analyse exchange rate pass-through...
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...Analyzing the impact of FDI on Inflation of the NAFTA Countries using Fixed Effects Model and Random Effect Model Objective of this study is to examine the impact of foreign direct investment on the inflation of the NAFTA countries (United States, Canada and Mexico). To conduct the analysis we have developed a panel data set consisting of FDI and inflation data of all three countries from 1988 to 2014. One important aspect of this analysis is test the notion that unobservable factors that might simultaneously affect the left hand side and right hand side of the regression are time-invariant. To test this, we need to use Fixed Effects (F-E) model and Random Effects (R-E) model. We used STATA for necessary analysis. Results are presented below: Simple OLS regression (see Table-1) tells us that for NAFTA countries, FDI and inflation is negatively correlated and statistically significant. The estimated coefficient of -.0000251 indicates that for 1 dollar increase in FDI, inflation is expected to decrease by .0000251%, ceteris paribus. The data set has been estimated by both 1) least squares dummy variable (LSDV) estimator. 2) Fixed effects estimator. The LSDV (see Table-2) fits the data better than does the pooled OLS. The F statistic increased from 5.05 to 10.21 (p<0000); SSE (sum of squares due to error or residual) decreased from .633356331 to .482044733; and R2 increased from 0.0601 to 0.2846. Due to the dummies included, this model loses two degrees of freedom (from 79...
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... AN INVESTIGATION OF THE FISHER EFFECT IN ZAMBIA (1992-2011) A Research Proposal for the Dissertation in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements of The Degree of Master of Arts RESEARCHER: MEBELO MUTEMWA COMPUTER NO.: 531004482 SUPERVISORS: DR. C. NG’ANDWE DR. C. MPHUKA DATE: AUGUST, 2012. * ABSTRACT This study seeks to investigate the extent to which the Fisher Hypothesis holds in Zambia. The Fisher hypothesis states that nominal interest rates move one-for-one with expected inflation, leaving the real rate of interest unaffected. Interest rate is an important variable for macroeconomists because it links the economy of today and the economy of the future through its effects on saving and investment decisions. The validity of the Fisher effect also has important implications for monetary policy and needs to be considered by central banks. Despite the importance of the Fisher Hypothesis, very few studies have been carried out in developing countries compared to developed countries. The study will utilize time series data for the period 1992 to 2011, this corresponds to the period in which interest rates were liberalized, and also the period in which Zambia was using monetary targeting as the monetary policy framework. The analysis will use the commercial bank lending rate as proxy measure of nominal interest rates and the Bank of Zambia (BOZ) inflation forecasts will be used as a measure of expected inflation. The Bounds test approach of Pesaran...
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...In economics, inflation is a sustained increase in the general price level of goods and srvices in an economy over a period of time. When the price level rises, each unit of currency buys fewer goods and services. Consequently, inflation reflects a reduction in the purchasing power per unit of money – a loss of real value in the medium of exchange and unit of account within the economy. The difference between inflation and a change in price of a particular good or service is that inflation reflects a general and overall increase in price across the whole economy In general, Inflation is caused by some combination of four factors. Those four factors are: Supply goes up or Supply of goods and services goes down or Demand for money goes down or Demand for goods and service goes up Inflation affects an economy in various ways, both positive and negative. Negative effects of inflation include an increase in the opportunity cost of holding money, uncertainty over future inflation which may discourage investment and savings, and if inflation were rapid enough, shortages of goods as consumers begin hoarding out of concern that prices will increase in the future. Inflation also has positive effects: * Fundamentally, inflation gives everyone an incentive to spend and invest, because if they don't, their money will be worth less in the future. This increase in spending and investment can benefit the economy. However it may also lead to sub-optimal use of resources. * Inflation reduces...
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...The Fisher Effect and the Quantity Theory of Money Eric Mahaney 4/7/13 EC-301-1 The Fisher effect and the Fisher equation were made famous by economist Irving Fisher. He created his equation by rearranging the equation for real interest rate, which is (r = i - π). Real interest rate equals the nominal interest rate plus inflation. This is a very basic equation. Fisher manipulated it to solve for i, in order to understand the effect that inflation has on nominal interest rate. The famous equation is i = r + π, nominal interest rate equals real interest rate plus inflation. This is basically saying that the nominal interest rate can be changed by a change in either the real interest rate or inflation. The Fisher effect is the one to one relationship between the inflation rate and the nominal interest rate. According to this model, as inflation increases, the nominal interest rate should also increase by the same proportion. The main concept behind the Fisher effect is that higher inflation causes higher nominal interest rate. (Mankiw, 91-92) By using the Fisher effect along with the quantity theory of money, the effect that money growth has on nominal interest rate can also be analyzed. The quantity theory of money is M*V=P*Y or the quantity of money multiplied by the velocity of money equals price multiplied by output. The velocity of money is assumed to remain constant in order to simplify the model. Therefore, PY is determined solely by the quantity of money...
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...Management Department Assignment Cyclical Effects of Inflation in the Economy of Bangladesh Course Name:- Micro Economics Course Number:- 1208 Submitted To Mr. Shah Redwan Chowdhury Assistant Professor Management Studies Jagannath University Submitted By Amity (Group-07) (114922-114940) 6th Batch, Sec:-B Management Studies Jagannath University Sl/No | Name | Roll | Status | 01 | Abul Hasan Emon | 114922 | Absent | 02 | Ashif Manowar Oli | 114924 | Present | 03 | Fatema Tuz Zohora | 114926 | Present | 04 | Tanvin Haque Mitara | 114928 | Present | 05 | Md. Rafiqul Islam | 114930 | Present | 06 | Khandaker Arif Hossain | 114932 | Absent | 07 | Touhidur Rahman Al-Baky | 114934 | Present | 08 | Rajib Sarker | 114936 | Absent | 09 | Bidyut Dey | 114938 | Present | 10 | Md. Farhad Hossain | 114940 | Present | Acknowledgement:- We have taken efforts in this assignment. However, it would not have been possible without the kind support and help of many individuals. We would like to extend our sincere thanks to all of them. We are highly indebted to Mr. Shah Redwan Chowdhury Sir for his guidance and constant supervision as well as for providing necessary information regarding the assignment & also for his support in completing the project. We would...
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...refer to a Working Paper ofthe International Monetary Fund The v i e w s e x p r e s s e d a r e t h o s e o f the a u t h o r ( s ) a n d d o n o t necessarily represent those of the Fund. WP/98/68 INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND Policy Development and Review Department Inflation, Disinflation, and Growth Prepared by Atish Ghosh and Steven Phillips1 Authorized for distribution by Timothy Lane May 1998 Abstract Although few would doubt that very high inflation is bad for growth, there is much less agreement about moderate inflation's effects. Using panel regressions and a nonlinear specification, this paper finds a statistically and economically significant negative relationship between inflation and growth. This relationship holds at all but the lowest inflation rates and is robust across various samples and specifications. The method of binary recursive trees identifies inflation as one the most important statistical determinants of growth. Finally, while there are short-run growth costs of disinflation, these are only relevant for the most severe disinflations, or when the initial inflation rate is well within the single-digit range. JEL Classification Numbers: E31, 040. Keywords: inflation, growth determinants, growth regressions, robustness. Authors' E-Mail Addresses: Aghosh@imf.org; Sphillips@imf.org 1 We would like to thank Kadima Kalonji for research assistance, and Alan Taylor and Maurice Obstfeld for making available their computer programs. Hugh Bredenkamp...
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...| Inflation behavior in financial crisis. | | | MAY 4, 2011 INDEX INTRODUCTION | 3 | TYPES OF INFLATION | 4 | * MODERATE INFLATION | 4 | * RUNAWAY INFLATION | 4 | * HYPERINFLATION | 4 | INFLATION CAUSES | 4 | * DEMAND PULL INFLATION | 5 | * COST PUSH INFLATION | 5 | * BUILD-IN INFLATION | 5 | * FORMULA | 5 | INFLATION EFFECTS | 6 | * EXPECTED INFLATION | 6 | * UNEXPECTED INFLATION | 6 | HOW TO STOP INFLATION? | 7 | INFLATION IN DIFFERENT COUNTRIES | 8 | * GERMANY | 8 | * FRANCE | 9 | * MEXICO | 10 | * USA | 11 | * GREECE | 12 | CONCLUSION | 13 | REFERENCES | 14 | INTRODUCTION The main objective of this paper is to explain the behavior and the effects of the inflation from the financial crisis in several countries talking about inflation and the causes and effects and later comparing different significant countries. The economic crisis from 2008 to 2011 is known as the world economic crisis that began that year, originates in the United States. Among the main factors causing the crisis would be high raw material prices, the overvaluation of the products, a global food and energy crisis, high world inflation and global threat of a worldwide recession, also a credit, and trust and mortgage crises on the markets. The root cause of all crises according to Austrian business cycle theory is an artificial expansion of credit. The origin of the crisis comes from the strong expansion...
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...Inflation and unemployment were not improved by monetary policy Abstract The global financial crisis made a long term negative effect on the economy all over the world as well as New Zealand. GDP and inflation decreased with a high level of unemployment rate. This essay is going to discuss the effect of the actions from reserve bank. According to their response, the IS-LM, AD-AS and Phillips models will be used to analyze the effect of change in OCR on economic activities. Furthermore, some previous literature will be used in this essay which is relative to some problem happened during the recession. Introduction There is a big impact on the economic environment following the 2008 financial crisis. New Zealand faced a negative effect on unemployment rate, income, inflation and output and etc. as an important part of developed country. The main aim of this essay is to investigate what monetary policy has been used in response to the recession and whether it is useful to make a significant recovery. The financial crisis can be seen as a very serious problem in New Zealand. The stock market got hit seriously because the investment, income, confidence, employment rate etc. all fall. During the recession, the unemployment rate rose from a low of 3.5% in December of 2008 to a high level of 7.3% in June of 2012. (TRADING ECONOMICS, 2013) The New Zealand GDP had a negative growth during 2008 and 2010 because many businesses shut down and the unemployment rate increased...
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...Econ 100B – Intermediate Macroeconomics Professor Thomas Wu Spring 2011 Midterm 2 Review Chapter 7 * Dynamic effects on Monetary Policy (and Neutrality of Money) * An expansionary monetary policy leads in the short run to an increase in the real money stock, a decrease in the interest rate, and an increase in output. Over time, the price level increases and the real money stock decreases until output has returned to its natural level. * In the medium run, money does not affect output, and changes in money are reflected in proportional increases in the price level. (money is neutral) * Dynamic effects on Fiscal Policy (the composition of outputs is different than it was before) * A reduction in the budget deficit leads in the short run to a decrease in the demand for goods and therefore to a decrease in output. Overtime, the price level decreases, leading to an increase in the real money stock and a decrease in the interest rate. * In the medium run, output increases back to the natural level of output, but the interest rate is lower, and investment is higher. * Dynamic effects on increase in price of oil (affects natural unemployment rate first) * An increase in the price of oil leads, in both the short run and the medium run, to a decrease in output. In the short run, it leads to an increase in the price level, which decreases the real money stock and leads to a contraction of demand an output. * In the medium run...
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