The Evolution of Wi-Fi
Charles Williams
Albert Acuna
ISSC340
American Military University

Abstract
From the creation of the IEEE standard in 1997 to current times Wi-Fi has evolved dramatically over the years. An idea to provide connectivity to devices with the absence of cables was adopted globally. Each year brings about new ways of utilizing wireless technology. This study aims to cover Wi-Fi from inception to present day and prospects for the future.

The Evolution of Wi-Fi
What exactly is Wi-Fi? A popular misconception is that Wi-Fi stands for “wireless fidelity”, however, it can be described as, a technology that uses radio waves to provide internet and network connectivity. The Wi-Fi Alliance, a non-profit organization founded by six companies in 1999, defines Wi-Fi simply as “connectivity”, connectivity in a way that provides freedom and the ability to move about without being tethered by cables, or stuck at a workstation. Wi-Fi symbolizes the ability to transfer data from one source to the next via a wireless link. Any product that houses the radio technology 802.11, a standard that has received widespread adoption, is considered a wireless device. The standard was developed in 1997.
Fathers of Wi-Fi With any popular invention or supposed novel idea controversy seems to always linger in the background. When we think of the printing press we think of Johannes Gutenberg, however roots of printing with movable type can be traced back 350 years before he was born. With Thomas Edison we think of the light bulb, though research will show that a man by the name of Sir Humphrey Davy first demonstrated the light bulb in 1806, and the start of Facebook is easily disputable due to the litigation process being highly publicized. The same goes for the invention of Wi-Fi, while Vic Hayes’ name is synonymous with its inception a man by the name of Dr. James O’Sullivan (through litigation) can be credited with its creation as well.
Victor (Vic) Hayes Vic Hayes, a Senior Research Fellow at the Delft University of Technology has been dubbed the name “Father of Wi-Fi after he chaired the group responsible for establishing the IEEE 802.11 Working Group for Wireless LAN’s in 1990. In 1997 the standard was finalized and due to the Federal Communication Commission (FCC) eliminating its regulatory case-by approval and opening up a new unlicensed spectrum in 1985, the 802.11 standard would operate there.
Dr. James O’ Sullivan Astrophysicist and CISRO employee, Dr. James O’Sullivan was tasked in the 1990’s with building a team to develop a high-speed wireless network. The technology developed was a solution to indoor interference with radio waves. CISRO admits that they did not invent WLAN technology, however their developments allowed for the best way of doing it. The team of 5 scientist led by O'Sullivan received a patent in 1996 for a method that involved a combination of OFDM, forward error correcting, and interleaving. (arstechnica, 2012)This technology is used in the 802.lla and .llg standards and thus prompted CISRO to file a lawsuit, which ended in 2009 with a settlement in CISRO's favor. So in reference to who invented Wi-Fi it is safe to say that Vic Hayes and Dr. James O'Sullivan, by spearheading their teams both equally contributed to the development of WLAN and should be considered the "Fathers Of Wi-Fi".
Wi-Fi Regulation
With concerns of regulating wireless LAN the FCC and the European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) are tasked with defining the rules and standards. The FCC regulates wireless LAN and their devices for use in the U.S. while the ETSI regulates mobile, radio, broadcasts in Europe.
Wi-Fi Standards
A standard as defined by IEEE standards association is a published document that establishes specifications and procedures designed to maximize the reliability of the materials, products methods, and/or services people use everyday. (IEEE-SA, 2012) The first wireless local area network (WLAN) standard, 802.11, owes its creation to the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE). The IEEE consists of many Electrical and Electronics Engineers (many with advanced degrees from some of the world's most prestigious universities) who are experts in their respective fields. (Hitchcock, 2009) 802.11 was actually the name of the group, chaired by Vic Hayes, who oversaw the development process. With advancements in technology and the demand for faster bandwidth better security and solid connectivity, the development of Wi-Fi standards continues with each outdoing its predecessor. Understanding each standard is important when setting up a business or home network. 

Development process
IEEE developed many standards, some were scraped and others are still in the process of ratification. Some of the more well known standards are 802.11, a, b, g, and n. There are others that are still in the development process such as 802.11ac and ad.
 The development process involves an in-depth six stage lifecycle. A full explanation of the cycle is beyond the scope of this paper, however a very brief explanation of each step is offered. 1. Initializing the Project – Requires an idea or need for something to be standardized, the idea is then sponsored and a Project Authorization Request (PAR) is submitted to the IEEE. 2. Mobilizing the Working Group – A collaboration of experts come together to create and write the standard. 3. Drafting the Standard – Segmented process that involves creating a scope and purpose based on the PAR, developing an outline of clauses and sub clauses, implementing all the appropriate copyright notices to form a document suitable for submission to the IEEE-SA. 4. Balloting the Standard – A 30-60 day process involving two balloting groups; individuals and entities such as corporations. This process takes place once the sponsor feels the draft is stable. The primary goal is to receive a 75% approval rating from the balloting groups. 5. Gaining Final Approval – Approval is granted upon the recommendations of the IEEE’s Standards Review Committee. If approved the standard is published and valid for ten years after approval date. Extensions or amendments can be made to the standards during this time but they must also go through the ballot process. 6. Maintaining the Standard – Involves correcting any errors standards may have, any corrections require a PAR and must also be balloted.
The Beginning
802.11 started it all; ratified in 1997 the standard carried a maximum network bandwidth of 2 Megabytes per second (Mbps) and operated on the 2.4 Gigahertz (GHz) frequency. During the 1990’s this speed was still considered relatively slow and the cost of transmitters and receivers required to use the technology was too high for some businesses and end users to purchase. This was one of the determining factors of its low adoption rate. The standard allowed for three alternative technologies to be used; infrared, frequency hopping spread spectrum and direct sequence spread spectrum; all providing 1-2(Mbps) throughput. (Hitchcock, 2009)
802.11b
An expansion of the original 802.11 b was ratified in 1999. The standard carries a maximum bandwidth of11Mbps and works off of the same 2.4GHz frequency as its predecessor. It is important to note that the radio signaling frequency 2.4GHz is unregulated and depending on proximity home appliances could interfere with the signal transmission.
802.11a
Developed at the same time as 802.11 b the alpha version of the 802 series carried a maximum bandwidth of 54Mbps and used the 5GHz frequency. The higher frequency allowed for a faster bandwidth but the drawback was the shortened range and its difficulty with penetrating obstructions. A popular misconception is that 802.11a came after the bravo version; the alpha version did not catch on as fast due to its higher cost and shortened range.
Additionally, due to the high cost it was mainly found in businesses rather than a home network. The different frequencies of the alpha and bravo series make them incompatible with one another. Even with hybrid models (802.11a/b) the products are only built to work side by side. (Mitchell B. ))
802.11g
Ratified in 2003 802.11g answered the call to increased Ethernet speeds and quickly gained widespread adoption. Operating on the 2.4 GHz frequency and producing a maximum bandwidth of 54Mbps; the standard could be seen as a mash-up of 802.11b and 802.11a. Higher bandwidth speeds on a lower frequency was achieved by using Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM), a digital modulation method that splits a signal into narrowband channels at different frequencies. (Rouse, 2006)
802.11n
Proposed in 2002, ratified in 2009, 802.11n improves on the design by introducing Multiple Input/Multiple Output (MIMO) technology. MIMO uses multiple transmitters and receivers to transmit more data at a faster rate. This technology is beneficial for multiple users accessing the same Wi-Fi signal. 802.11n operates on either 2.4 or 5GHz frequencies and supports a maximum bandwidth of 3-450Mbps. Rumor has it that the reason the ratification process took almost 7 years was due to the legal issues surrounding the CISRO patent of the WLAN technology.
802.11 Amendments

Currently there are three amendments to the current standards 802.11e, 802.11h, and 802.11i. 802.11e, was developed in 2005, this amendment deals with Quality of service standards for wireless products handling voice and video transmissions. 802.llh was developed in 2003; this amendment addresses interference issues for WLAN on the 5 GHz spectrums. 802.lli developed in 2004, this amendment addresses security encryption methods used by 802.11a, 802.11b, and 802.11g specifications.

Wi-Fi Advantages/Disadvantages
Advantages
Every product has its advantages and disadvantages; consumers must take both into account and make an informed decision. The advantages of Wi-Fi networks are obvious; it offers simplicity, mobility and in most cases it is extremely cost effective. Due to Wi-Fi standards widespread adoption and interoperability products are widely available in the market, this is important to consumers because choices cause vendors to compete at lower prices. Having a wireless network allows for mobility, a user can feel free to roam around their networking environment without the worry of being tethered to a cable. It also can be cost effective, especially to businesses looking to set up a LAN there would not be an added cost for cabling and existing equipment could serve an influx of users, while wired equipment would require adding extra cables and would drive up the cost.
Disadvantages
Although Wi-Fi has many advantages in its mobility and simplicity there are a few disadvantages as well. Mobility is not a huge issue with a wireless network however the further you are away from your access point the more unreliable the connection becomes. Additionally, there may be some interference, dependent upon which standard a user is currently utilizing.
This issue is not so much of a problem with the new standards however; 802.11 b had issues with interference from home appliances due to the use of the 2.4 GHz spectrum. (Pre-OFDM) Probably the biggest issue seen with home and business networks alike is security. Some security methods used for encryption have been known to have flaws and could easily be hacked. This makes sending data of a sensitive nature a huge issue.
Wi-Fi Security Methods
People travel with Wi-Fi enabled devices all the time and quite frequently will eavesdrop on another user's unprotected wireless connection. Choosing a Wi-Fi security method allows you to pick and choose who you want to have access to the network. Additionally, securing a wireless network helps prevent (not stop) intruders from using a user’s connection to perform illegal activities; which would be traced back to the user. The two most common security methods are WEP and WPA.
WEP
Wireless Equivalent Privacy or WEP is method for wireless network security. When enabled the user as well as the system sets a security key that encrypts information sent form one computer to the next across the network. The data encryption scheme used is called RC4, which contains 64 bits 40 bits being user generated, and 24 bits generated by the system. (Mitchell B. , WEP - Wired Equivalent Privacy, 2012) A WEP key consists of hexadecimal digits ranging from numbers 0-9 and letters A-F. The wireless industry has shifted away from WEP due to flaws in its algorithm making it relatively easy to crack. WEP has been all but phased out by Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA).
WPA
Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA) was developed to replace the less secure WEP. WPA uses and encryption key just as WEP but the keys used by WPA change dynamically. This method slows down hackers dramatically. WPA contains two different standards for security Temporal Key Integrity Protocol (TKIP) and Advanced Encryption Standard (AES). Of the two AES is the preferred method due to hits higher level of security. Both could be used in conjunction with one another.
WPA2
WPA2 builds on the tightly secured WPA method by providing business and consumer users with government grade security. This method allows for Personal and Enterprise levels of security. WPA2-Personal uses the standard password method to protect network access while WPA2-Enterprise authenticates access through a server. WPA2 works in conjunction with WPA.
Businesses Integrate Wi-Fi Technology In an effort to enrich the consumer experience, improve customer loyalty and ultimately boost sales; businesses have begun to offer Wi-Fi service in their establishments. Some provide this service for free while others may charge a small fee. Mobile hotpots can be seen all over the world in restaurants, hotels, airports and many more places where there seems to be a the need to access mobile data. Wi-Fi hotspots offer convenience of a wireless Internet connection to frequent travelers as well as the mobile data conscious consumer. McDonalds is no longer a place just for fast food; patrons are utilizing the venue to catch up on current events or handle work projects on the go. This is all made possible by the implementation of hotspots. Business owners believe that the more time customers sit at their tables, the more money they will spend. The Corporate sector has found that implementing Wi-Fi LANs versus cable cost-effective. For example, an office needing 30 Ethernet jacks would require extensive cabling and ultimately cost could reach the tens of thousands; versus a wireless LAN that could serve the same amount for a fraction of the cost.
The Future of Wi-Fi
Standards
History has proven that the development of better Wi-Fi standards is ongoing. The latest standard to receive ratification, 802.11n will be surpassed by 802.11ac, if the standard is ratified. 802.11ac is currently in its draft stage however vendors have already manufacture products that adhere to its protocol. This is as good of a sign as any of future ratification. The new standard boast speeds of 1Gbps, operates on a 60 GHz spectrum and allows a single access point to serve the same number of Wi-Fi clients with greater throughput. While 11ac goes through ratification 11ad is already in development and claims to allow speeds of up to 7Gbps. The demand for the ability to transfer larger amounts of data faster and more securely seems to be on an infinite spiral, thus requiring enhanced standards in the future.
Wi-Fi Alliance Introduces Passpoint As of March 22, 2010, there are 296,732 free and pay Wi-Fi locations in 145 countries with South Korea leading the way. The ubiquity of the Wi-Fi Hotspot and the prediction of its numbers hitting close to 6 million by 2015 has sparked the Wi-Fi Alliance to develop a new program called Wi-Fi Certified Passpoint. Passpoint is designed to allow seamless connectivity to mobile hotspots all over the world. Features in development are: * Network Discovery and Selection – Allows devices to identify and associate with Passpoint networks with no user interaction * Seamless Network Access – Removes the extra step of authenticating when connecting to a mobile hotspot, devices are authenticated automatically. * Secure authentication and connectivity – WPA2 will be the security method used for all connections.
Super Wi-Fi In 2008 the FCC authorized unlicensed use in the “white-space spectrum. The white-space spectrum consists of pieces of unlicensed spectrum that are currently unused by television stations on the VHF and UHF frequency bands. (Reed, 2012) Operating in white-space enables Wi-Fi signals to travel farther and penetrate more obstructions than a traditional network would allow. This idea has seen much resistance from the National Broadcasters Association, who believes that devices operating in this spectrum will interfere with broadcasts on frequencies in close proximity. Be that as it may, Super Wi-Fi, a name used to describe mobile data networks running on the spectrum, has been launched in North Carolina.
Conclusion
The evolution of Wi-Fi continues with standards being developed to provide the world with enhanced connectivity, faster speeds, and more secure connections. The process is ongoing with refinements and amendments being made to achieve perfection. Much has been learned and improved upon since 802.11’s introduction in 1997. The global impact is evident with free and pay for service Wi-Fi hotspots all over the world as well as the technologies integration into businesses foreign and domestic. With the Wi-Fi Alliances development of seamless connectivity with mobile data, and the journey into the white-space spectrum, as well as the future introduction to 802.11ac and .11ad the future of Wi-Fi is promising and shows no signs of slowing down.

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