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L'instinct
L'instinct est la faculté que nous avons de produire des actions non déterminées par une expérience antérieure. C'est surtout chez les animaux que l'instinct est visible. La vie animale n'est qu'une suite d'instincts. Chez l'enfant, l'instinct joue aussi un rôle qui diminue plus tard. C'est l'instinct qui pousse l'enfant à prendre le sein de sa mère, et à exécuter les mouvements nécessaires à sa vie. Chez l'homme fait, l'instinct est beaucoup plus rare; à peine peut-on citer chez lui l'instinct de conservation, et encore bien moins développé.
Voyons maintenant quels sont les principaux caractères de l'activité instinctive.
Inconscience. Les animaux, en agissant instinctivement, ont bien conscience des mouvements qu'ils effectuent, non de la fin vers laquelle ils tendent. Il faudrait leur prêter des connaissances plus grandes que celles de l'homme même. L'animal ne mange que par instinct, non pour vivre.
Perfection. L'instinct est parfait. Il y a une admirable corrélation des mouvements de l'instinct, et de leur fin. Cette perfection est atteinte du premier coup, sans que l'individu ait besoin d'éducation.
Immutabilité. L'instinct est immuable, il est aujourd'hui ce qu'il était autrefois. Les abeilles font leur miel aujourd'hui comme autrefois. Cependant cette immutabilité de l'instinct n'est pas rigoureusement absolue. L'instinct peut changer sous l'influence du milieu ou sous celle de l'homme. La domestication change les instincts des animaux qui y sont soumis.
Spécialité. L'instinct n'est pas capable de produire un nombre indéterminé d'actions différentes. Chaque instinct est spécial. C'est une détermination précise de l'activité. L'instinct est spécial, a une forme déterminée; il produit toujours la même action.
Généralité. L'instinct est commun à l'espèce. Toutes les araignées de la même espèce tissent leur toile de la même façon.
D'après certains philosophes, l'instinct est tout physiologique; les mouvements instinctifs s'accomplissent d'après les lois toutes physiques, et n'auraient rien de psychologique. On a souvent dit qu'il n'était qu'un système d'actions réflexes. Descartes avait déjà admis une théorie analogue. L'instinct pour lui n'est pas un fait psychique, et comme pour lui, d'autre part, tous les mouvements physiologiques n'étaient que des mouvements mécaniques, il en déduisait que les bêtes n'étaient que des machines.
Cette doctrine se réfute par l'exagération de ses conséquences. Elles ne faisaient pas reculer l'école cartésienne, mais la science aujourd'hui ne permet plus d'admettre une pareille théorie: il est bien prouvé aujourd'hui que les animaux, au moins supérieurs, ont de l'intelligence, peuvent s'organiser en sociétés. Voici d'ailleurs un fait qui contredit la théorie de l'instinct physiologique: il est établi par les sciences naturelles que deux organismes identiques peuvent avoir des instincts différents.
Enfin, ce qui démontre que cette thèse est excessive, c'est que l'instinct peut devenir peu à peu conscient, être transformé en mouvement volontaire. Or, si l'instinct peut devenir volonté, c'est qu'il n'y a pas un abîme entre ces deux termes.
L'instinct n'est donc pas physiologique, ne se réduit pas à un mécanisme. C'est réellement un phénomène psychique.
Condillac a voulu rendre compte de l'instinct en le ramenant à l'habitude. L'instinct n'est pour lui qu'une expérience devenue peu à peu habitude et instinct.
L'expérience quotidienne montre la fausseté de cette théorie. Nous voyons sans cesse, sous l'influence de l'instinct, se produire des actions des animaux qui ne peuvent avoir pour base l'expérience. Il y a de plus des instincts que l'expérience ne peut point expliquer, la distinction des plantes saines et vénéneuses, par exemple, chez certains animaux: l'expérience à ce sujet leur aurait coûté la vie.
Une doctrine beaucoup plus importante, explique l'instinct par une habitude héréditaire. C'est la théorie exposée par Darwin, dans son ouvrage De l'origine des espèces, et qui est admise par Herbert Spencer.
En voici les principes:
Quand les éleveurs veulent créer des individus présentant certaines qualités, ils émulent la sélection artificielle des variétés; cette qualité se retrouve ainsi dans la descendance avec une plus grande intensité. Les animaux qui ne présentent pas la variété demandée sont éliminés. Ceux-là seuls restent donc qui présentent la qualité recherchée.
La nature fait mécaniquement, fatalement ce que font les éleveurs. Les animaux qui présentent quelque qualité les rendant supérieurs, survivent seuls par suite de la "lutte pour la vie". L'économiste Malthus avait fait depuis longtemps remarquer que les productions du sol ne croissent pas aussi vite que les individus. Par conséquent, à même que la population augmente, le sol fournit de moins en moins à la consommation. Le monde est une place assiégée. La quantité de provisions est finie; le nombre des bouches croît. Les plus solides survivent seuls: la sélection naturelle est produite par cette lutte.
C'est ainsi que naît l'instinct. Ce n'était d'abord qu'une habitude heureuse, donnant à l'animal qui en était doué une supériorité sur ses semblables. Ceux qui possédaient cet avantage éliminèrent les autres; et cette habitude, fixée par l'hérédité, est devenue instinct. Cela explique du même coup comment l'instinct est commun à tous les individus de la même espèce.
Cette doctrine soulève les objections suivantes:
D'abord, elle n'est pas vérifiable par l'expérience. Nous ne voyons pas actuellement les espèces se transformer. Actuellement, il y a un abîme entre les espèces. Le croisement des espèces différentes est stérile, ou tout au moins les individus produits retournent à l'un des types primitifs, ou sont eux-mêmes stériles.
En second lieu, il y a des instincts qui se perpétuent dans l'espèce bien que la descendance ne soit pas continue. Ainsi chez les abeilles, les neutres ne naissent pas de neutres, mais de la reine, et cependant présentent tous les instincts des neutres.
La théorie transformiste ne peut expliquer ce cas.
Enfin, la difficulté devant laquelle échouait la théorie de Condillac se présente de nouveau dans la théorie transformiste. Il y a des instincts que l'expérience ne peut donner: si l'instinct de conservation, dès l'origine, n'avait pas prémuni les animaux contre le danger, ils seraient morts; l'instinct de la nourriture lui est aussi nécessaire, la douleur qui résulte de la privation de nourriture n'indique pas à l'animal qu'il est nécessaire de manger pour la faire cesser.
L'instinct est donc un fait simple, irréductible, résistant à l'analyse; il faut lui conserver ce caractère et le définir une prédétermination naturelle de l'activité, phénomène propre et spécial.

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