...Game Theory Application on Pricing Strategies Used by the Retail Supermarket Industry Everyday low pricing (EDLP) and High-Low Pricing are the most popular pricing strategies used by companies in the retail supermarket industry. In this part of the project, the two pricing strategies are analyzed using a game-theoretic framework and compared to the observed behavior of supermarket within the industry. First, the definitions of both strategies are provided to better understand the analysis. Everyday low pricing (EDLP) is a pricing strategy that provides consumers with low prices without the need of using of coupons or waiting for sales price events. This strategy was started by Wal-Mart and Procter & Gamble and it is believed that EDLP saves retailers the time and expense of applying short-term promotional pricing, as well as, the cost of distributing and processing of coupons. Companies who often adopted this strategy also believed that it creates shopper loyalty. (Barron's Educational Series, Inc., 2000) The basic premises that suppliers are basing on when using EDLP are the following: * Steady, competitive prices will lead to even demand for products. * Inventory and other logistical costs will drop due to effective management of product flows. * There will be reduction of promotional costs and other forms of trade. * The costs of saving due to consistent demand and better management of inventory will result to lower final price of the products. (Hurwich...
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...Game Theory and the Prisoner’s Dilemma Business Strategy Antoinette Monteiro Grand Canyon University DBA 815 January 13, 2016 The Definition of Game Theory The game is the object of game theory, which is an interactive situation. There are several players involved in the situation; a game with only one person is a decision problem. According to game theory, the players, their preferences, their information, the strategic actions available to them, affects the outcome. Game theory is conflict and cooperation; the agents are interdependent on the actions of others. These agents are individuals, groups, firms or a combination of these combined. Game theory provides a language to formulate, structure, analyze and understand different circumstances (Turocy and Stengel, 2001 p.4). History and Effects of Game Theory An example of game analysis is the idea of two players dominating the marketplace which was introduced by Antoine Cournot in 1838. Emile Borel, a mathematician proposed a game theory in 1921 and this research was expanded by Neumann in 1928 called the “theory of parlor games.” This theory was solidified in the publication, “The Theory of Games and Economic Behavior by Neumann and Morgenstern. This book pioneers the basic terms and problems that are still in use to this day (Turocy and Stengel, 2001, p.4). The mathematician, John Nash showed that finite games have an equilibrium point in which players choose actions which give the best outcome for themselves...
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...to « Game Theory », and its applications. ! ! ! ! IBMEC - EM Strasbourg Business School ! ! ! ! ! ! ! GAME THEORY "1 SUMMARY ! ! ! ! ! A brief introduction to the origins of the Game Theory……………..…3 What is a game ?………………………………………………………….……4 What is the purpose of a game ?……………………………………….….….….4 What defines a game ?…………………………………………….…….…….….4 Typology of the actual know games………………………….……….……….…4 How can we represent a game ?……………………….………….………….…..5 Strategies and actions in a game…………………….………………….…..6 Dominant/Dominated Strategies…………………….……………………….….6 Mixed Strategies……………………………………………………………….…6 Notion of The Pareto Optimum…………………………………………………7 A complete, concrete (and classic) example : The Prisoner’s Dilemma………….7 Commitment & Credibility………………………………………………………8 A concrete example of a commitment problem…………………………………9 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………….10 Sources………………………………………………………….…………..…11 ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! GAME THEORY "2 A/ A brief introduction to the origins of the Game Theory… ! What is Game Theory ? It is the study of mathematical models of conflict and cooperation between intelligent rational decision-makers. An alternative term would probably be Interactive Decision Theory. Even if this concept is, basically, pure economics, today we can see it in various range of application, from political science to psychology, logic or biology. The first thing that we should question ourselves, speaking of Game Theory, is probably...
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... INTERNET AUCTIONS AND GAME THEORY Table of content I. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................................ 3 II. MAIN PART........................................................................................................................................................ 4 1. EBAY AND INTERNET AUCTIONS TYPES ............................................................................................................................ 4 2. E-‐BAY BIDDING PROCESS.................................................................................................................................................... 5 3. BIDDING STRATEGIES UNDER GAME THEORY ................................................................................................................. 5 A. Proxy Biding ................................................................................................................................................................... 6 B. Bid Sniping ...................................................................................................................................................................... 6 Bid Sniping: the Optimum Game Theory Strategy to Win Online EBay...
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...Essentials of game theory 1. Introduction Game theory is the study of strategic decision making. More formally, it is "the study of mathematical models of conflict and cooperation between intelligent rational decision-makers."[1] An alternative term suggested "as a more descriptive name for the discipline" is interactive decision theory.[2] Game theory is mainly used in economics, political science, and psychology, as well as logic and biology. The subject first addressed zero-sum games, such that one person's gains exactly equal net losses of the other participant(s). Today, however, game theory applies to a wide range of class relations, and has developed into an umbrella term for the logical side of science, to include both human and non-humans, like computers. Classic uses include a sense of balance in numerous games, where each person has found or developed a tactic that cannot successfully better his results, given the other approach. Modern game theory began with the idea regarding the existence of mixed-strategy equilibria in two-person zero-sum games and its proof by John von Neumann. Von Neumann's original proof used Brouwer's fixed-point theorem on continuous mappings into compact convex sets, which became a standard method in game theory and mathematical economics. His paper was followed by his 1944 book Theory of Games and Economic Behavior, with Oskar Morgenstern, which considered cooperative games of several players. The second edition of this book provided...
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...Situations economists and mathematicians call games psychologists call social situations. While game theory has applications to "games" such as poker and chess, it is the social situations that are the core of modern research in game theory. Game theory has two main branches: Non-cooperative game theory models a social situation by specifying the options, incentives and information of the "players" and attempts to determine how they will play. Cooperative game theory focuses on the formation of coalitions and studies social situations axiomatically. This article will focus on non-cooperative game theory. Game theory starts from a description of the game. There are two distinct but related ways of describing a game mathematically. The extensive form is the most detailed way of describing a game. It describes play by means of a game tree that explicitly indicates when players move, which moves are available, and what they know about the moves of other players and nature when they move. Most important it specifies the payoffs that players receive at the end of the game. Strategies Fundamental to game theory is the notion of a strategy. A strategy is a set of instructions that a player could give to a friend or program on a computer so that the friend or computer could play the game on her behalf. Generally, strategies are contingent responses: in the game of chess, for example, a strategy should specify how to play for every possible arrangement of pieces on the board. An alternative...
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...Game theory is a concept of decision making that considers more elements beyond just benefits minus costs. Specifically, it includes the interaction between participants. In economics, the theory attempts to predict the participants’ optimal decisions. It has found a core place in economic decision-making and policy-making for its inherent ability to predict reactions in resource allocation, business negotiation, and other economic aspects. Game theory is mostly associated with decision-theory and other contexts such as cooperation and negotiations. From its definition, it is evident that the game theory is largely used in the study of the human decision making processes. In psychology, its equivalent is known as the theory of social situations. In economics, however, game theory tends to focus on sets of outcomes known as equilibrium that represent the most rational solutions to each situation. Game theory emanates from the complexity of human interactions; thus, in a situation where an individual is dealing with an inanimate object such as a tree, he or she does not expect the tree to fight back or respond (Leyton-Brown and Shoham 51). The environment can also be considered neutral to what is done to the tree, at least in direct and rational response. In human interactions, however, each action by an actor emanates from a situation and elicits a response. Each actor must thus recognize how his of her interaction with other rational actors works so as to foster cooperation...
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...Game Theory Background An Illustrative Example Course Structure Introduction to Game Theory Econ 414 Jeff Borowitz Summer I 2010 Jeff Borowitz Introduction to Game Theory 1 / 18 Game Theory Background An Illustrative Example Course Structure Rational Choice What is Game Theory? Game Theory is really “Multi-Party Decision Theory” Outside of game theory, we think of just one actor (firms maximizing profits, workers deciding how much to work, etc.) Decisions involving many parties are very relevant to economics Oligopoly Public Goods Working together on a team project Jeff Borowitz Introduction to Game Theory 2 / 18 Game Theory Background An Illustrative Example Course Structure Rational Choice What is a game? Formally A game consists of Players The actions that the players can take How much each player values each potential outcome What each player knows Definition (A Game) A game Γ = (S, U) is a list of possible actions by each player S = (S1 , S2 , . . . , Sn ), and a list of payoff functions for each player under all possible combinations of actions by each other player U = (u1 (S), u2 (S), . . . , un (S)) Jeff Borowitz Introduction to Game Theory 3 / 18 Game Theory Background An Illustrative Example Course Structure Rational Choice What is a game? Informally Games Fantasy Football (drafting, picking line-ups depend on what others do) Rock-Paper-Scissors Risk Not Games Football (depends on skill, strength...
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...Game Theory∗ Theodore L. Turocy Texas A&M University Bernhard von Stengel London School of Economics CDAM Research Report LSE-CDAM-2001-09 October 8, 2001 Contents 1 What is game theory? 2 Definitions of games 3 Dominance 4 Nash equilibrium 5 Mixed strategies 6 Extensive games with perfect information 7 Extensive games with imperfect information 8 Zero-sum games and computation 9 Bidding in auctions 10 Further reading 4 6 8 12 17 22 29 33 34 38 This is the draft of an introductory survey of game theory, prepared for the Encyclopedia of Information Systems, Academic Press, to appear in 2002. ∗ 1 Glossary Backward induction Backward induction is a technique to solve a game of perfect information. It first considers the moves that are the last in the game, and determines the best move for the player in each case. Then, taking these as given future actions, it proceeds backwards in time, again determining the best move for the respective player, until the beginning of the game is reached. Common knowledge A fact is common knowledge if all players know it, and know that they all know it, and so on. The structure of the game is often assumed to be common knowledge among the players. Dominating strategy A strategy dominates another strategy of a player if it always gives a better payoff to that player, regardless of what the other players are doing. It weakly dominates the other strategy if it is always at least as good. Extensive game An extensive game (or extensive...
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...Game Theory Themes 1. Introduction to Game Theory 2. Sequential Games 3. Simultaneous Games 4. Conclusion Introduction to Game Theory Game theory is the branch of decision theory concerned with interdependent decisions. The problems of interest involve multiple participants, each of whom has individual objectives related to a common system or shared resources. Because game theory arose from the analysis of competitive scenarios, the problems are called games and the participants are called players. But these techniques apply to more than just sport, and are not even limited to competitive situations. In short, game theory deals with any problem in which each player’s strategy depends on what the other players do. Situations involving interdependent decisions arise frequently, in all walks of life. A few examples in which game theory could come in handy include: ● Friends choosing where to go have dinner ● Parents trying to get children to behave ● Commuters deciding how to go to work ● Businesses competing in a market ● Diplomats negotiating a treaty ● Gamblers betting in a card game All of these situations call for strategic thinking – making use of available information to devise the best plan to achieve one’s objectives. Perhaps you are already familiar with assessing costs and benefits in order to make informed decisions between several options. Game theory simply extends this concept to interdependent decisions, in which the options being evaluated are functions of...
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...What is game theory? 2 Definitions of games 3 Dominance 4 Nash equilibrium 5 Mixed strategies 6 Extensive games with perfect information 7 Extensive games with imperfect information 8 Zero-sum games and computation 9 Bidding in auctions 10 Further reading 4 6 8 12 17 22 29 33 34 38 This is the draft of an introductory survey of game theory, prepared for the Encyclopedia of Information Systems, Academic Press, to appear in 2002. ∗ 1 Glossary Backward induction Backward induction is a technique to solve a game of perfect information. It first considers the moves that are the last in the game, and determines the best move for the player in each case. Then, taking these as given future actions, it proceeds backwards in time, again determining the best move for the respective player, until the beginning of the game is reached. Common knowledge A fact is common knowledge if all players know it, and know that they all know it, and so on. The structure of the game is often assumed to be common knowledge among the players. Dominating strategy A strategy dominates another strategy of a player if it always gives a better payoff to that player, regardless of what the other players are doing. It weakly dominates the other strategy if it is always at least as good. Extensive game An extensive game (or extensive form game) describes with a tree how a game is played. It depicts the order in which players make moves, and the information each player has at each decision point. Game A game...
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... Nowadays, Game theory plays an important role in modern analysis. This concept can be applied in plenty fields including business, finance, political science, economics and sports. In business, competition is very intensive hence decision makers should analyse and determine their strategy carefully. Furthermore, they have to consider about their rivals strategies available and actions in the game. Once decision makers know all strategies available, they can apply a game concept, and achieve the proper outcome. This essay is divided into two parts, in first part, it will be discussed the general idea of game theory including prisoner’s dilemma which is one of the most known theories. In the second part, the application of game theory will be presented in the example of an oligopoly market. Part one: General discussion of game theory Game Theory is a general...
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...Game Theory in Business Decision | | | Content 1. Introduction -------------------------------------------------------------------- P.2 2. Main Models of Game Theory ---------------------------------------------- p.3-4 3. Nash Equilibrium ------------------------------------------------------------- p.5 4. Dominant Strategy ----------------------------------------------------------- p.5 5. Prisoners’ Dilemma ---------------------------------------------------------- p.5-6 6. Daily Example of Competition of Supermarkets ------------------------ p.7-8 7. Daily Example of Competition of Mobile Market ---------------------- p.9-10 8. Daily Example of Penalty Kick in Football Match --------------------- p.11-12 9. Conclusion ------------------------------------------------------------------- p.13 10. Reference -------------------------------------------------------------------- p.14-15 Introduction Game theory is the study of how people behave in strategic situations. Game theory concerns situations in which multiple players make strategically interdependent decisions. The term interdependent means that one person’s behavior affects another person’s well-being. We can make use of game theory on different aspects such as economics, political science and even our daily life. For example, whether TV stations leads to enlarge the market shares on program production usually depends on the subsequent moves...
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...Game Theory Game A game is a formal description of a strategic situation. Game Theory Game theory is the formal study of decision-making where several players must make choices that potentially affect the interests of the other players. Mixed Strategy A mixed strategy is an active randomization, with given probabilities, that determines the player’s decision. As a special case, a mixed strategy can be the deterministic choice of one of the given pure strategies. Nash Equilibrium A Nash equilibrium, also called strategic equilibrium, is a list of strategies, one for each player, which has the property that no player can unilaterally change his strategy and get a better payoff. Pay-Off A payoff is a number, also called utility, that reflects the desirability of an outcome to a player, for whatever reason. When the outcome is random, payoffs are usually weighted with their probabilities. The expected payoff incorporates the player’s attitude towards risk. Perfect information A game has perfect information when at any point in time only one player makes a move, and knows all the actions that have been made until then. Player A player is an agent who makes decisions in a game. Rationality A player is said to be rational if he seeks to play in a manner which maximizes his own payoff. It is often assumed that the rationality of all players is common knowledge. Strategic form A game in strategic form, also called normal form, is a compact representation of a game...
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...Through visionary thought and understanding, a creative strategy increases the outcome of success in a given situation or variable. In many cases, strategy is understood as a plan that chooses an individual’s future possible position. Speaking with respect to Game Theory within the Healthcare field, there are many ways to move forward with creating this ideal insightful approach. Learning through class discussions, it’s clear the topic of the discussion with Game Theory is very evolved, diverse, and dynamic with all different observations. All games share an interdependence meaning the result for each individual is dependent on the option they primarily choose. For myself, this is definitely considered an everyday normalcy working in the Healthcare Industry. Whether Game Theory is applied in all of society is only understood through the participants as all situations are different and unique, but all equally share the mindset of increasing their individual outcome of achievement. The analysis of Game Theory within Healthcare is spread across an increasingly strategy-prone competitive market. Governmental changes alone within healthcare laws create challenges for decision makers to compete within this highly-regulated domain. Creating governmental regulation lessens efficiency for providers who serve society to collaboratively work together, and in addition, diminishes their likelihood of optimal standing within the environment. Turning the hand in reference to my current position...
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