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康复治疗的运动学基础 江钟立 2008年 运动学是研究人体活动的科学,所涉及的基础内容主要包括生物力学和生理学。生物力学是应用力学的原理来分析人体运动规律的科学,运动生理学则是研究运动中人体主要系统和脏器功能生理效应规律的科学,两者均是康复治疗学的重要理论基础。正确认识各运动器官的力学特性及其在运动中的相互作用和生理功能,对创伤和疾病的预防、治疗和康复都极为重要。
一、运动力学基础
(一)人体生物力学的概念 1、人体力的种类 力学是研究物体间相互作用的力与物体发生位移(运动)之间关系的物理学分支。自然界常见的力有重力、引力、压力等,这些力作用于物体使之发生位置或状态的改变,物体之间发生位置变化的过程称之为运动。与人体运动有关的力主要有内力和外力两种。 (1)内力 是指人体内部各种组织器官相互作用的力。其中最重要的首先是肌肉收缩所产生的主动拉力,是维持人体姿势和产生运动的动力;其次是各种组织器官的被动阻力,包括肌肉、骨、软骨、关节囊、韧带、筋膜等受压力或拉力作用时对抗变形的阻力,躯体的惯性力和内脏器官间的摩擦力及其固定装置(如腹膜、肠系膜、大血管等)的阻力等。 (2)外力 是指外界环境作用于人体的力,包括重力、器械的阻力、支撑反作用力、摩擦力及流体作用力。各种外力经常被利用来作为运动训练的负荷,这种负荷要求肢体运动的方向和力量与之相适应,因而选择投入工作的肌群及其收缩强度,这是肌力训练的方法学理论基础。 2、人体杠杆 人的躯体运动遵循杠杆原理,各种复杂动作都可分解为一系列的杠杆运动。杠杆包括支点、力点和阻力点。支点到力点的垂直距离为力臂,支点到阻力点的垂直距离为阻力臂。根据杠杆上三个点的不同位置关系,可将杠杆分成三类: (1)第1类杠杆(平衡杠杆) 其支点位于力点与阻力点之间。如头颅与脊柱的连结,支点位于寰枕关节的额状轴上,力点(如斜方肌、肩胛提肌、头夹肌等的作用点)在支点的后方,阻力点(头的重心)位于支点的前方。主要作用是传递动力和保持平衡,支点靠近力点时有增大速度和幅度的作用,支点靠近阻力点时有省力的作用。 (2)第2类杠杆(省力杠杆) 其阻力点位于力点和支点的之间。如站立位提踵时,以跖趾关节为支点,小腿三头肌以粗大的跟腱附着于跟骨上的止点为力点,人体重力通过距骨体形成阻力点,在跗骨与跖骨构成的杠杆中位于支点和力点之间。这类杠杆力臂始终大于阻力臂,可用较小的力来克服较大的阻力,有利于作功。 (3)第3类杠杆(速度杠杆) 其力点位于阻力点和支点的之间。如肱二头肌屈起前臂的动作,支点在肘关节中心,力点(肱二头肌在桡骨粗隆上的止点)在支点和阻力点(手及所持重物的重心)的中间。此类杠杆因为力臂始终小于阻力臂,力必须大于阻力才能引起运动,不省力,但可以获得较大的运动速度。人体活动大部分是速度杠杆。
(二)运动平面和运动轴
记述人体运动通常采用基本姿势位,将人体运动的方向用三个相互垂直的平面和轴来表示。 1、基本姿势位 (1)基本姿势位 是人体运动的始发姿势。身体直立,面向前,双目平视,双足并立,足尖向前,双手下垂于身体两侧,掌心贴于体侧。 (2)解剖学体位 是阐述人体各部位结构位置关系时采用的体位。身体直立,双眼向前平视,两脚跟靠拢,足尖向前,两上肢垂于躯干两侧,手掌向前。 2、基本运动平面 人体可分为三个基本运动平面,即矢状面、额状面和水平面,相互间呈垂直状。矢状面是与人体侧面向平行的面,把人分为左右两部分;额状面是与身体前或后面平行的面,把身体分为前后两部分;水平面则是与地面平行的面,把人体分为上下两部分。 3、基本运动轴 与基本运动平面相适应,有矢状轴、额状轴和垂直轴3个基本运动轴。矢状轴是沿前后方向垂直通过额状面的轴;额状轴是沿左右方向垂直通过矢状面的轴;垂直轴是沿上下方向垂直通过水平面的轴。
(三)骨骼的生物力学特性
骨主要由细胞、胶原纤维与羟磷灰石组成,有密质骨与松质骨之分,二者的强度与刚度不同。成人成熟密质骨的极限应力值为:压缩>拉伸>剪切。影响骨骼强度与刚度的因素: (1)应力 肌肉收缩时产生的压应力可减少或抵消作用于骨的拉应力,保护骨免受拉伸骨折。 (2)载荷速度 骨的能量储存,随着载荷速度增加而增加。骨折时所储能量要释放出来。在低速下能量可通过单个裂纹散失,使骨及软组织保持相对完整性;但在高速下,所储更大能量不能通过单个裂纹散失,故可发生粉碎性骨折及广泛的软组织损伤。 (3)骨的大小、形状和特性 骨的横截面积(大小)及骨组织在中轴周围的分布(形状)均影响骨的强度。
(四)关节的力学特性
关节面的形态及结构决定了关节可能活动的轴,所有的关节运动都可以分解为环绕三个相互垂直的轴心,沿三个相互垂直的平面上进行运动。即环绕额状轴在矢状面上的运动,环绕矢状轴在额状面上的运动,环绕垂直轴在水平面上的运动。关节轴的活动方向就是自由度,具有两个以上自由度的关节都可做绕环运动。 1、关节的分型 (1)单轴关节 围绕一个运动轴而在一个平面上运动,如指间关节(滑车关节),近侧、远侧桡尺关节(车轴关节)的屈伸运动。 (2)双轴关节 围绕两个互为垂直的运动轴并在两个平面上运动,包括:桡腕关节(椭圆关节)、拇指腕掌关节(鞍状关节)的屈伸、收展和环转运动。 (3)三轴关节 围绕三个互相垂直的运动轴并在三个平面上运动,可做屈伸、收展及旋转、环转等多方向的运动。包括:肩关节(球窝关节)、髋关节(杵臼关节)、肩锁关节(平面关节)。 2、关节的稳定性和灵活性 关节的运动方式和运动幅度取决于关节的形态结构,后者又决定了关节的功能。各关节在形态和结构上各有其特点,稳定性大的关节(例如膝关节)活动度较小,灵活性较差;而灵活性大的关节(例如肩关节)稳定性较差。影响关节稳定性和灵活性的因素:构成关节的两个关节面的弧度之差、关节囊的厚薄与松紧度、关节韧带的强弱与多少、关节周围肌群的强弱与伸展性。骨骼和韧带对关节的静态稳定起主要作用,肌肉对动态稳定起重要作用。
(五)肌肉的力学特性
每块肌肉由许多肌纤维组成。每条肌纤维是一个肌细胞,外包肌膜(即细胞膜),内有肌浆(即细胞质)。在肌浆中含有丰富的肌原纤维,每条肌原纤维上都呈现出明暗相间的横纹,故骨骼肌又称横纹肌。 1、肌肉的理化特性 (1)兴奋性和收缩性 肌肉的兴奋性和收缩性表现为在刺激作用下能发生兴奋和产生收缩的反应。 (2)伸展性和弹性 肌肉的伸展性指肌肉在放松状态下,受到外力的作用时长度延伸的能力;肌肉的弹性是指当外力去除后,肌肉恢复原来长度的能力。 2、肌力的影响因素 (1)肌肉的生理横断面 每条肌纤维横断面之和为肌肉的生理横断面,单位生理横断面肌纤维全部兴奋时所能产生的最大肌力,称为绝对肌力。 (2)肌肉的初长度 指收缩前的长度。当肌肉被牵拉至静息长度的1.2倍时,肌力最大。 (3)运动单位募集 指进行特定活动动作时,通过大脑皮质的运动程序,调集相应数量的运动神经元及其所支配的肌肉纤维的兴奋和收缩过程。运动单位募集越多,肌力就越大。运动单位募集受中枢神经系统功能状态的影响,当运动神经发出的冲动强度大时,动员的运动单位就多;当运动神经冲动的频率高时,激活的运动单位也多。 (4)肌纤维走向与肌腱长轴的关系:一般肌纤维走向与肌腱长轴相一致,但也有不一致的。如在一些较大的肌肉中,部分肌纤维与肌腱形成一定的角度而呈羽状连接。羽状连接的肌纤维越多,成角也较大,肌肉较粗,能产生较多的力,如腓肠肌,具有较强的收缩力。而比目鱼肌,肌纤维与肌腱的连接很少成角,故具有较高的持续等长收缩能力。 (5)杠杆效率:肌肉收缩产生的实际力矩输出,受运动节段杠杆效率的影响。有报道髌骨切除后股四头肌力臂缩短,使伸膝力矩减小约30%。
(六)纤维的力学特性
骨骼周围的肌腱、韧带、关节囊、皮肤,以及外伤后引起的瘢痕组织中的纤维组织,主要由胶原纤维构成。由于胶原纤维内的细纤维在末受载荷时呈波浪状,载荷开始后胶原纤维被拉直、伸长,直至屈服点,继而产生非弹性变形,直至达到极限而断裂破坏。破坏时的变形范围为6%~8%。 1、韧带的力学特性 (1)韧带的粘弹性 韧带在牵拉载荷的应力作用下呈现以下力学特征。 ①非线性应力—应变关系 韧带胶原纤维并非全部平行排列,当韧带的拉伸载荷开始时,仅与载荷作用方向一致的纤维承受最大牵伸而被完全拉直。随着牵伸力越加越大时,越来越多的非平行纤维受到载荷而被拉直。载荷的不断增大,韧带进一步延长,呈现越来越大的刚性,有利于在应力下保持关节的稳定和牢固。 ②蠕变 在静力学试验时,如载荷不再增加,但恒定地维持下去,韧带还可以缓慢地继续延长。在反复多次牵伸后也有类似的蠕变现象,即牵伸到达同样长度所需的载荷逐步减少。 ③应力松弛 在韧带受载荷牵伸而延长时,如其长度被维持不变,则韧带内因牵伸而提高的张力会逐步下降,称之为应力松弛现象。 (2)塑性延长 肌腱在载荷牵伸下发生弹性延长和塑性延长。前者在应力去除后回缩,后者则为持久地延长。 2、肌腱的力学特性 肌腱的胶原纤维几乎完全呈平行排列,使其能承受较高的拉伸载荷。人体韧带的拉伸变形范围为6%~8%(屈服点),腱的应变范围为10%~15%。通常肌腱的横截面积越大,所能承受的载荷也越大。健康肌腱的拉伸载荷强度极限为肌肉的2倍。 上述特性对牵伸肌腱、韧带及粘连组织,改善关节柔韧性,矫治关节的纤维性挛缩强直有重要意义。
二、运动生理学基础
(一)运动与骨骼肌 运动通常指躯体的活动。尽管运动的形式十分复杂,但每一个单一动作基本上都是由骨骼肌在神经支配下,以骨骼肌收缩为动力,以关节为轴心,牵动骨骼所完成的杠杆运动。运动的基本类型取决于关节形态、参与运动的关节数量、肌肉分布特点和神经发放冲动的强弱、频率等。 1、运动单位 由运动神经元及其所支配的肌纤维合称为运动单位。每一块肌肉可包含很多的运动单位。运动单位的功能是按全或无定律进行。同一块肌肉的运动单位越多,动作的精细程度越高。同样,一个运动神经元所支配的肌纤维数量越少,动作的精细程度也越高。 2、骨骼肌的分型 骨骼肌纤维(肌细胞)由肌膜(即细胞膜)、肌浆(即细胞质)和肌原纤维组成。肌原纤维由粗肌丝和细肌丝组成,前者为肌球蛋白,后者由肌动蛋白、原肌球蛋白和肌钙蛋白构成,兴奋时通过肌膜传播动作电位,钙离子释放入肌浆网,与肌钙蛋白结合,启动肌动蛋白激活肌球蛋白上的ATP,肌丝的滑行引起收缩。 人类骨骼肌存在三种不同功能的肌纤维:Ⅰ型慢缩纤维,又称红肌,即缓慢—氧化型肌纤维(SO),Ⅱa型快速氧化—糖原分解型纤维(FOG)和Ⅱb型快缩纤维,又称白肌,即快速—糖原分解型肌纤维(FG)。各型骨骼肌纤维的特征如表2-1所示。
表2-1 骨骼肌纤维的类型及其特征
|肌纤维特征 |Ⅰ型(SO) |Ⅱa型(FOG) |Ⅱb型(FG) |
|能量供应形式 |氧化磷酸化 |氧化磷酸化 |糖酵解 |
|线粒体 |多 |多 |少 |
|肌红蛋白含量 |高 |高 |低 |
|毛细血管数 |致密 |致密 |稀疏 |
|肌肉颜色 |红 |红 |白 |
|糖原贮备 |少 |多 |多 |
|糖酵解酶活性 |低 |中等 |高 |
|肌球蛋白ATP酶活性 |少 |多 |多 |
|收缩速度 |慢 |快 |快 |
|耐疲劳能力 |高 |中等 |低 |
|肌纤维大小 |小 |最大 |大 |

3、肌肉的收缩形式 (1)等张收缩 肌力大于阻力时产生的加速度运动和小于阻力时产生的减速度运动。运动时肌张力大致恒定,故称等张收缩。因引起明显的关节运动,故也称动力收缩。等张收缩又分向心收缩(肌肉的止点和起点互相靠近的肌肉收缩,如上楼梯时的股四头肌收缩)和离心收缩(肌力低于阻力,使原先缩短的肌肉被动地延长,如下楼梯时股四头肌收缩)。 (2)等长收缩 当肌肉收缩力与阻力相等时,肌肉长度不变,也不引起关节运动,称等长收缩或静力收缩,如半蹲位时的股四头肌收缩。此时肌张力恒定,在对抗固定物件作等长收缩时,肌肉的张力视主观用力程度而定。 (3)等速收缩 肌肉收缩的速度保持一定。这不是人类肌肉的自然收缩形式,而是人为地借助于等速肌力训练器将其收缩速度限制在一定的范围之内,以便测定关节活动度及处于任意关节角度时的肌力,并进行训练。 4、肌肉的协同 肢体的每一动作都需要多组肌肉恰当地通力合作才能完成。 (1)原动肌 直接完成动作的肌群称原动肌。其中起主要作用者称主动肌,协助完成动作或仅在动作的某一阶段起作用者称副动肌。 (2)拮抗肌 与原动肌作用相反的肌群。原动肌收缩时,拮抗肌应协调地放松或作适当的离心收缩,以保持关节活动的稳定性及增加动作的精确性,并能防止关节损伤。 (3)固定肌 为了发挥原动肌对肢体运动的动力作用,需要参加固定作用的肌群。 (4)中和肌 其作用为抵消原动肌收缩时所产生的一部分不需要的动作。 5、不同运动形式对骨骼肌的影响(表2—2)
(二)运动时心血管的调节
运动时心血管系统为了满足运动肌群的代谢性需要自动进行复杂的功能调节,其调节程度取决于运动的强度。这种调节主要表现为局部的自动调节(auto regulation)和神经性调节(neurogenic control),前者为组织提供氧的需求和清除代谢废物,后者参与血压的维持。 1、肌肉血流的自动调节 由于肌肉系统中血管的总容量极大,若完全扩张,则可超过全身总血容量。因此,在作功肌肉血管开放的同时,其它脏器血管相应收缩,使血液重新分配。在正常安静情况下,内脏器官(心、肝、肾、脾、胃肠)接受的血流量约为3.0L/min,而皮肤为0.25L/min,肌肉1.0 L/min。运动中,内脏(除心脏外)的血流量均减少,皮肤血管则先收缩后扩张,便于散热。这样可使作功肌肉获得较多的血流,以摄取较安静时高达50~75倍的氧量。运动前后各脏器的血流量分布如表2—3所示。 表2-2 不同运动形式对骨骼肌代谢和功能的影响
|运动类别 |主要刺激 |主要适应 |对肌功能的影响 |
|耐力运动 |在相对低强度下的反复收缩 |1、增加线粒体量和质,能量释放酶(三羧酸循环酶和长链脂 |1、增加肌耐力; |
| | |肪酸氧化酶)和电子传送能力提高; |2、运动中可节省糖原的利用; |
| | |2、少见无氧代谢途径的改变; |3、作功中乳酸形成相对较少 |
| | |3、肌纤维稍有增粗; | |
| | |4、以红肌纤维改变为主,并增加肌肉的血液循环 | |
|力量运动 |每一肌横断面积范围内增加力的 |1、肌纤维增粗(横断面积增大),以白肌纤维为主; |1、增强肌力; |
| |负荷即募集增多和(或)频率增加 |2、蛋白合成能力增强,分解降低; |2、单位时间内爆发力增强,相应肌群中协调 |
| | |3、可能使线粒体数量相对减少,氧化能力无改变,无氧代谢|能力改善; |
| | |能力增强; |3、可能耐力下降 |
| | |4、对肌纤维型无改变 | |
|*代偿性过负荷(慢性|每一肌横断面积范围内很慢增加 |1、肌纤维增粗; |1、增加机械功; |
|代偿性肥大) |力的负荷 |2、保持氧化能力并有所增强; |2、增强维持肌张力的能力; |
| | |3、快酵解纤维向快—氧化—酵解型纤维转变 |3、不易疲劳 |
|肢体制动 |每一肌横断面积范围内减少力的 |1、肌萎缩; |1、力量和耐力均下降; |
| |负荷,减少收缩频率 |2、线粒体减少,氧化能力下降,无氧代谢能力也减退; |2、抗应激能力减退 |
| | |3、肌内血流量减少 | |

*代偿性过负荷是指机体内肌或肌群受到损伤后,相邻肌产生代偿性功能,因而出现过负荷现象。 表2-3 安静和运动中各脏器的血流分布 器官 肺 消化器 心 肾 骨 脑 皮肤 肌肉 安静(L/min) 5.0 1.25 0.25 1.25 0.25 0.75 0.25 1.00 占每搏出量(%) 100 25 5 25 5 25 5 20 中等运动(L/min) 15.0 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.15 0.75 12.0 12.0 占每搏出量(%) 100 3 4 3 1 4 12 71 2、神经性调节 运动中血流分布的改变主要由于交感神经和激素的调节作用所致。交感神经分布广泛,对脾、肾、肠管和皮肤血管的作用强烈,对脑、骨骼肌和心脏的作用相对较弱。运动时交感神经兴奋,使得血液重新分配,以适应运动中的代谢需要;同时也会引起静脉血管的收缩,增加回心血量。 肾上腺髓质分泌的肾上腺素和去甲肾上腺素作用于心血管系统,去甲肾上腺素促进末梢血管的收缩,肾上腺素的少量分泌可以扩张血管。肾素-血管紧张素可以引起动静脉血管的收缩,参与运动时的血压调节,同时抑制肾脏的水和钠的排出,增加循环血量。 运动中,还通过腔静脉压力感受器的加压反射和通过主动脉弓、颈动脉窦压力感受器的减压反射调节血管活动。 3、局部因素的调节 在安静状态下,由于骨骼肌中血管平滑肌具有较高的张力(血管收缩),血液流经每克肌肉的流量极低。运动中,这种肌张力很快减弱,即使在刚开始运动后的数秒钟内就已出现,因而血管很快舒张。自主神经无疑起着主导作用外,局部作用的调节更为重要。局部作用的因素包括:①局部组织的氧张力降低;②二氧化碳张力提高;②乳酸堆积;④因ATP水解,细胞内K+、组织胺和腺苷等释放。 由于活动肌肉中氧耗增加,使组织中的氧张力低下,扩大了血液和组织间的氧梯度,并因二氧化碳增多和乳酸的堆积,血液中血红蛋白氧分离曲线右移,因而即使组织中的氧张力不变,仍可使肌细胞获得更多的氧,其结果扩大了动静脉之间的氧分压差。由于血液是人体内环境中主要的物质载体,不仅提供给作功肌以较多的氧和营养物质,而且由于酶、激素、无机盐、免疫物的运送,对全身均产生强烈的调节作用。 4、运动中的循环调节 (1)心率和心搏出量 在运动中,心脏每分输出量的增加或维持,可通过增快心率或增加搏出量或二者均增加来达到。心率的变化是受神经和体液的调节。影响心搏出量的主要因素有:心室收缩力、心室流出道和血管的阻力、回心血量。 (2)心输出量 运动中必须保持较高的心输出量,以保证肌肉、呼吸和全身脏器的需要。安静仰卧时,成人每分输出量是4~5 L,站立时略有减少,运动中心输出量增加,健康人每分输出量可增至20L左右。其计算公式是:心输出量=每搏出量×心率=每分摄氧量/动静脉氧分压差。 (3)血压和血管阻力 运动时,心输出量增多和血管阻力因素可以引起相应的血压增高。但在运动中由于骨骼肌血管床的扩张,总外周血管阻力明显下降,这样有利于增加心输出量,并减少输送氧给作功肌的阻力。在血管反应良好的人体,动力性、耐力性和大肌群参与的运动项目(如跑步、骑自行车等),剧烈运动时收缩压可以增高,舒张压仅轻微升高或不变或稍下降。在无氧、等长收缩及仅有小肌群参与的大强度运动时,虽可明显增加心输出量,但由于此时局部血管扩张机制的作用较少,总外周血管阻力没有相应的下降,舒张压升高明显,心室的后负荷加大。 (4)静脉血回流 运动时,因骨骼肌血管床扩张而引起大量血流灌注,若没有相应的代偿机制常可妨碍静脉血回流。因为静脉管壁较薄,且有静脉瓣,故可阻止血液逆流。当肌肉收缩时,可使静脉受挤压,迫使血液向心脏流动;当下一次肌肉舒张可使静脉重新充盈。这样反复挤压,会产生“按摩”效应,可防止血流的淤积。同样,运动时的呼吸动作也促使肢体的静脉血回流入胸腹腔。另外,交感神经可使容量血管收缩,使静脉系统中血流量减少,也是保证回心血量增加的重要因素。
(三)对呼吸系统的影响
肺的功能在于进行气体交换、调节血容量及分泌某些内分泌激素。每分通气量是潮气量和呼吸频率的乘积。潮气量又分两部分。一部分气体进入肺泡进行气体交换,称为肺泡通气量;另一部分气体并不进入肺泡,只存在于呼吸道解剖无效腔内,称为死腔通气量。死腔通气量和潮气量的比值表示肺泡通气效率。 1、运动中摄氧量的变化 在摄氧量(VO2)能够满足需氧量的轻或中等强度运动,只要运动强度不变,即能量消耗恒定时,摄氧量便能保持在一定水平,被称为“稳定状态”。但在运动刚开始的短时间内,因呼吸、循环的调节较为迟缓,氧在体内的运输滞后,致使摄氧量水平不能立即到位,而是呈指数函数曲线样逐渐上升,此即进入工作的非稳态期,或“进入工作状态”,通常是从无氧供能开始,逐渐增加有氧成分,呈特定的摄氧动力学变化。“稳定状态”是完全的有氧供能,而“进入工作状态”这一阶段的摄氧量与根据稳定状态推断的需氧量相比,其不足部分即无氧供能部分,则传统地被称为“氧亏”。 当运动结束进入恢复期时,摄氧量也并非从高水平立即降至安静时的水平,而是通过快、慢两个下降曲线逐渐移行到安静水平。这一超过安静状态水平多消耗的氧量,则传统地被称为“氧债”,并认为“氧债”与总的“氧亏”等量。 2、最大摄氧量 运动时消耗的能量随运动强度加大而增加。随着运动强度的加大,摄氧量达到最大而不再能增加的值,称为最大摄氧量(VO2max)。 3、运动对呼吸的影响 健康人大运动量后对呼吸的影响如表2—4所示。 表2-4 健康人运动前后呼吸各指标的变化
|呼吸指标 |安静 |大运动量后 |
|呼吸频率(次/min) |10 |50 |
|潮气量(L/min) |0.6 |3.2 |
|每分通气量(L) |6 |160 |
|吸氧量(L) |0.25 |4.57 |
|二氧化碳排出量(L) |0.20 |0.52 |
|呼吸商 |0.79 |1.21 |
|通气氧耗值(ml/L·min) |6 |120 |
|肺泡通气率 |0.3 |0.12 |
|肺血流量(L/min) |4 |26 |
|肺动脉平均压(kPa) |1.87 |3.60 |
|肺泡-动脉氧压力梯度(kPa) |1.33 |4.00 |

(四)对代谢的影响 1、运动中的能量代谢 能量的产生有无氧代谢过程和有氧代谢过程两种机制。 (1)无氧代谢过程 ①非乳酸性能量的产生: 腺嘌呤激酶反应:ATP → ADP + Pi;2ADP → ATP+ AMP 肌酸激酶反应:CP + ADP → ATP + Cr → ADP + Pi + Cr;ATP + Cr → ADP + CP ②乳酸性能量产生:产生4个ATP,在反应过程中消耗1个ATP,实际产生3个ATP。 丙酮酸 + NADH2 + LDH→ 乳酸+ NAD + LDH (2)有氧代谢过程 指糖类、脂类、蛋白质三大热能营养素在细胞线粒体内充分的氧气摄取状态下通过三羧酸循环产生ATP的过程。 2丙酮酸 + 6O2 + 36ADP → 6CO2 + 6H2O + 36ATP 棕榈酸 + 23O2 + 130ADP → 16CO2 + 16H2O + 130ATP 2、运动中的乳酸代谢 肌肉收缩时可产生乳酸,过去认为只有在无氧代谢情况下即在剧烈运动时才产生,现已证实在各种运动时均有乳酸产生,即使安静时也有乳酸生成,只不过此时乳酸的产生和消除形成平衡。运动可以加速乳酸的清除,运动初,主要依赖无氧代谢,产生较多的乳酸并进入血液内。当肌肉持续收缩并进入稳定状态时,无氧代谢已明显降低,有氧代谢成为主要的供能形式,具有较大的氧化乳酸能力。 氧化乳酸的器官除骨骼肌外,心、肝、肾均可用乳酸作为氧化底物,但所比重占极少。安静时肝脏内约有14%~15%的葡萄糖是通过利用乳酸合成的(糖原异生作用)。运动中通过肝糖原分解成葡萄糖的量增加,同时摄取乳酸的量较安静时也增加2.5~3倍。肾脏可直接氧化乳酸再生糖原,当血乳酸增高时,尿中排出乳酸量也随之增加。 3、运动对物质代谢的影响 (1)糖类代谢 肌糖原是运动中的主要能源,随着运动方式、运动强度、时间、饮食条件、训练水平和周围环境不同而变化。在一定强度的运动中,运动开始时肌糖原的降解较快,以后随着时间的延长呈曲线相关。在任何时间内,运动强度愈大,肌糖原利用愈多。安静或运动中糖的利用都受胰岛素的调节。 (2)脂肪代谢 长链脂肪酸是脂肪氧化的重要能源。脂肪酸的来源:①血浆脂质;②细胞内甘油三酯和磷脂池;③肌纤维间脂肪组织中的甘油三酯池。在40%VO2max强度运动时,脂肪酸的氧化约占肌肉能量来源的60%。运动还可提高脂蛋白脂酶的活性,加速富含甘油三酯的乳糜微粒和极低密度脂蛋白的分解,降低血脂,提高高密度脂蛋白的含量。

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...The Bad Exercise What are the effects on children whose parents push them in sports? “As the stakes grow, the children are the ones losing,” according to Sacks. Seventy percent of children drop out of sports by age 13, and a big reason is that their parents are putting too much pressure on them, “he explained." It’s interesting because a lot of people don’t know that parents pushing their children in sports isn't very good for children. Parents pushing their children can have bad effects on their children. Children can burn out and developing interests as an effect. Pushing a child to participate in a sport increases the likelihood that the child will develop sports-related burnout. Rather than advancing in overall development, forced participation...

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Value of Sports

...The Value of Sports The chief object of ports is, of course, bodily exercise. “A sound mind in a sound body” is a well-known saying. The heath of the body is essential for success in life. An unhealthy man is always sad, gloomy ad therefore loses confidence in him. To keep healthy, one must take an active interst in sports. Thus sports serve an essential purpose in life because they ensure good health and build a fine physique. If one is bodily fit, one feels capable of hard endeavor and life without endeavor is useless. The great advantage of sports is that they combine exercise with trill, excitement and sensations. In order that we should readily take exercise it should be made interesting and, as everybody knows, practically all kinds of games devised by man possess a certain degree of interest.  The Value of Sports such as Hockey, football, cricket, tennis, badminton, rowing and swimming --- all these and others not only give exercise to the libs but also provide a good deal of excitement and entertainment. Besides, the competitive element in sports is source of thrills for the mind. Not only the players, but the spectators also feel engrossed in a game because of its suspense and unexpected turns. It is for these reasons that sports form a very important part in education. A bookworm who takes no interest in sport is physically weak and all his mental excellence can’t make up for his physical deficiency.  The Value of Sports benefits not only the body but...

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Marketing Plan

...Marketing Plan MEMBERSHIP DRIVEN A WINNER’S ATTITUDUE! Date: October 17, 2012 1.0 Executive Summary New York Sport Club is own and operated by Town Sports International (TSI) health club company, and is the largest in the Northeastern United States. Since 1974, the company has grown to include over 150 health and fitness facilities in four major metropolitan areas - New York, Boston, Washington, D.C. and Philadelphia with nearly half a million members. There are also three locations in Switzerland, Basel, and Zurich. All sport clubs have a multitude of options for everyone, and a wide range of group exercises and fitness programs. Select facilities also offer racquet sports, pools, basketball courts and other recreational activities. The company’s successful growth over the years is a result of many things, including its innovative fitness programs, well-trained staff, dedication to quality and service and continual facility improvement. But foremost, the New York Sports Club success has been earned by placing members satisfaction above all else. So when you have satisfied members, they get results from their fitness program, which becomes a win-win situation for all participants. 2.0 Situation Analysis Membership Driven, which consists of four project management consultants, were hired by New York Sports Club (NYSC) located in New York City on 23rd Street and Park Avenue in the Gramercy area to increase their club membership. The main goal...

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