THE IMPACT OF EXTRACURRICULAR ATHLETIC ACTIVIES ON ACADEMIC
ACHIEVEMENT, DISCIPLINARY REFERRALS, AND SCHOOL ATTENDANCE AMONG
HISPANIC FEMALE 11TH GRADE STUDENTS
A Dissertation
By
Kelly J. Manlove
BS, Stephen F. Austin State University, 1996
MS, University of North Texas, 2006
Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
In
Educational Leadership
Texas A&M University-Corpus Christi
Corpus Christi, Texas
May, 2013
THE IMPACT OF EXTRACURRICULAR ATHLETIC ACTIVIES ON ACADEMIC
ACHIEVEMENT, DISCIPLINARY REFERRALS, AND SCHOOL ATTENDANCE AMONG
HISPANIC FEMALE 11TH GRADE STUDENTS
A Dissertation
By
Kelly J. Manlove
BS, Stephen F. Austin State University, 1996
MS, University of North Texas, 2006
This dissertation meets the standards for scope and quality of
Texas A&M University–Corpus Christi and is hereby approved.
Kamiar Kouzekanani, Ph.D. Bryant Griffith, Ph.D.
Chair Committee Member
Jacqueline Hamilton, Ed.D. Pamela Meyer, Ph.D.
Committee Member Graduate Faculty Representative
JoAnn Canales, Ph.D.
Interim Dean of Graduate Studies
May 2013
© Kelly Jean Manlove
All Rights Reserved
March 2013 v ABSTRACT
THE IMPACT OF EXTRACURRICULAR ATHLETIC ACTIVIES ON ACADEMIC
ACHIEVEMENT, DISCIPLINARY REFERRALS, AND SCHOOL ATTENDANCE AMONG
HISPANIC FEMALE 11TH GRADE STUDENTS
(March 2013)
Kelly J. Manlove
B.S., Stephen F. Austin State University
M.Ed., University of North Texas
Dissertation Chair: Kamiar Kouzekanani, Ph.D.
The study examined the impact of participation in extracurricular athletic activities on
GPA, reading and mathematics achievement scores, attendance rate, and disciplinary referrals among Hispanic female 11th graders. The ex post facto study employed an explanatory sequential mixed methods design. The 11th grade female Hispanic participants consisted of a characteristic-present group (n=544) who had participated in extracurricular athletic activities and a comparison group (n=244). Analysis of the quantitative data showed an association between involvement in extracurricular activities and GPA, reading and mathematics achievement scores, and attendance rates. Analysis of the qualitative data resulted in three themes, namely, emotional support, managerial support, and an intrinsic drive for excellence for those who had participated in extracurricular athletic activities; and two themes of extrinsic influences and negative high school experience for the comparison group. vi The quantitative and qualitative results were synthesized and discussed. Theoretical and practical implications were presented. The study did demonstrate that student participation in athletic activities positively impacts academic achievement and school attendance among
Hispanic females, and participation in athletic activities would likely benefit Hispanic females in other districts across Texas and the United States vii DEDICATION
I dedicate this dissertation to my family; Kacey, Jake, and DeLana. I am forever grateful for your unconditional love and support during the multiple times I could not be with you all.
There were many sacrifices that were made for me to pursue this degree, but the greatest sacrifice was the time we lost during my studies. Thank you, DeLana, for being my biggest advocate. I am forever grateful for your endless love and support as you consistently encourage and allow me to reach my personal and professional goals. Kacey and Jake, your constant support and understanding while I missed countless games, tournaments, performances, activities, dinners, school functions, and good-night kisses due to the pursuit of my degree has been profoundly appreciated over the years. I hope this accomplishment makes each of you proud and serves as an example that anything is possible. Thank you for allowing me to follow my dreams. viii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
My deepest gratitude is to my dissertation chair, Dr. Kamiar Kouzekanani. I am fortunate to have an advisor that mentored and guided me during this journey. Dr.
Kouzekanani’s focused direction allowed me the freedom to explore while providing me the support I needed when I faltered. His mentorship, patience, and support carried me throughout this dissertation process. I cannot thank him enough for his guidance and leadership.
I would like to thank my committee members, Dr. Jacqueline Hamilton, Dr. Bryant
Griffith, and Dr. Pamela Meyer who have given their time and expertise to better my work. They provided articles, reviewed drafts, and kindly encouraged me. I would also like to thank Dr.
Michael Moody, who supported my topic and greatly assisted and contributed to the foundation of my work. In addition, I am grateful for Dr. Raul Prezas’ feedback and support in the development of my topic as well as my final product.
I would like to thank the faculty and staff of the Educational Leadership doctoral program at Texas A&M University–Corpus Christi for their guidance in my graduate study. To my colleagues, I am thankful for your support and companionship as we survived course work, comprehensive exams, research, and writing over the years.
Finally, I would like to express my gratitude and deep appreciation to my love ones, whose patience, support, and assistance have guided me throughout this journey. To DeLana,
Kacey, and Jake, I acknowledge the daily sacrifices you made in supporting my goal of achieving this degree. To my brother Charlie, you have provided a blueprint for our family for following one’s educational and professional dreams. Your drive for excellence and high standards will positively affect our children for generations. I am thankful for everything you do ix for our large, awesome family. To my sister Maggie, I love that our professional and educational paths are parallel. Our analogous journey allows us to grow, share, and learn from each other. I am grateful for your endless support and love as a fellow educator, student, best friend, and, most of all, my sister. To Jordan and Carrie, thank you for loving our family and your positive contributions to our tribe. To my mom and dad, Carter and Carol Gregory, thank you for being the best teachers I have ever had and for recognizing my potential, even during my weakest times. Your endless support and love allows us the courage to set our goals high. You each have provided the necessary tools for us to succeed and for that we are all eternally grateful. Thank you both so much, I love you. x TABLE OF CONTENTS
CONTENTS PAGE
ABSTRACT…………………………….………...……………………...…..………………..…..v
DEDICATION………………………………….……………...…………………..….…………vii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS……...……………………………...………………………………..viii
CHAPTER I – Introduction……………………………………………………………….1
Background and Setting…………………………………………………………...1
Statement of the Problem………………………………………………………….7
Theoretical Framework……………………………………………………………7
Purpose of the Study………………………………………………………………8
Operational Definitions…………………………………………………………....9
Delimitations, Limitations, and Assumptions…………………………………….9
Significance of the Study………………………………………………………...10
CHAPTER II - Review of Literature…………………………………………………….12
Title IX – Women in Sports………………………………………………….…..12
Changing Demographics………………………………………………………....15
Hispanic Participation in Sports………………………………………………….16
Texas High School Athletics and the UIL……………………………………….17
Theoretical Framework……………………………………………………..……20
Academic Achievement, School Attendance, and Disciplinary Referral………..22
Academic Achievement………...………………………………....……..22
School Attendance Rates………………………………………...………24
Disciplinary Referrals…………………………………………...……….25 xi CONTENTS PAGE
Summary…………………………………………………………………...…….27
CHAPTER III – Methodology…………………………………………………...………28
Research Design……………………………………………………………….....28
Quantitative………………………………………………………………29
Qualitative…………………………………………………………..……29
Instrumentation……………………………………………………………….….30
Quantitative………………………………………………………………30
Qualitative………………………………………………………………..31
Subject Selection……………………………………………………………...….33
Quantitative………………………………………………………………33
Qualitative…………………………………………………………..……34
Data Collection…………………………………………………………………..34
Quantitative………………………………………………………………34
Qualitative…………………………………………………………..……34
Data Analysis…………………………………………………………………….35
Quantitative……………………………………………………………....35
Qualitative……………………………………………………….……….36
CHAPTER IV – Results…………………………………………………………...…….37
Quantitative Results………………………………………………………...……38
A Profile of Subjects……………………………………………………..38
Outcome Measures………………………………………………...……..39
Group Comparisons………………………………………………...……41 xii CONTENTS PAGE
Covariate Analysis…………………………………………………….....45
Qualitative Results……………………………………………………………….46
Characteristic-Present Group…………………………………………….47
Comparison Group…………………………………………………...…..53
Summary of Results…………………………………………………………...…55
CHAPTER V – Summary, Conclusion, and Discussion…………………………...……57
Summary of Results……………………………………………………………...58
Conclusions………………………………………………………………………60
Discussion...……………………………………………………………………...60
Recommendations for Further Research…………………………………………64
Final Remarks………………………………………………….……………...….65
REFERENCES………………………………………………………...………………………...67
APPENDICES…………………………………………………………………………………...77
Appendix A:……………………………………………………………………………...77
IRB Approval Letter……………………………………………………………..78
Approval Letter from Participating District…………..………………..……...…79
Student Assent Form……………………………………………………….…….80
Parental Consent Form………………………………………….……...…..…….81
Appendix B:…………………………………………………………………….…….….84
Transcript of Characteristic-Present Focus Group……………………...…….….85
Transcript of Comparison Focus Group………………………..……………..…98 xiii LIST OF TABLES
TABLE PAGE
1 A Profile of Subjects…………………………………………………………………..…38
2 Means and Standard Deviations by High School for Academic Achievement………….39
3 Means and Standard Deviations by High School for TAKS Reading…………………...40
4 Means and Standard Deviations by High School for TAKS Mathematics………………40
5 Means and Standard Deviations by High School for Disciplinary Referrals…................40
6 Means and Standard Deviations by High School for Attendance……………….……….41
7 High School by Extracurricular Athletic Activities Interaction Effect…………………..41
8 Group Comparison on Academic Achievement (GPA)………………………………….42
9 Group Comparison on TAKS Reading Scale Score……………………………………..43
10 Group Comparison on TAKS Mathematics Scale Score…………………...……………43
11 Group Comparison on Disciplinary Referrals…………………………………………...44
12 Group Comparison on Attendance…………………………………………………….…45
13 Point-Biserial Correlation Socio-economic Status and Outcome Measures.………….…45
14 Observed and Adjusted Means………………………………………………….……….46
15 Qualitative Data Codes, Characteristic-Present Group……………………………….….47
16 Participating Student Perspectives, Theme 1: Emotional Support…………………...….49
17 Participating Student Perspectives, Theme 2: Managerial Support……………………...51
18 Participating Student Perspectives, Theme 3: Intrinsic Drive for Excellence…………...52
19 Qualitative Data Codes, Comparison Group…………………………………………….53
20 Nonparticipating Student Perspectives, Theme 1: Extrinsic Influences…………………54
21 Nonparticipating Student Perspectives, Theme 2: Negative HS Experiences…………...55 xiv LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE PAGE
1 Astin’s I-E-O Model ………………………………………………………………………..20
2 Explanatory Sequential Mixed Methods Design…………………………………………....29 1
CHAPTER I
Introduction
Background and Setting
Approximately 49.4 million students attended a public school in the United States in the fall of 2010. Of those students, 14.70 million were high school students enrolled in grades 9 through 12 (Gerald & Hussar, 2010). Approximately, 55.00% of those high school students participated in some type of extracurricular activity. During the 2010-2011 school year, 8.09 million students participated in at least one high school athletic program in the United States.
The National Federation of State High School Associations reported that participation in high school sports had increased among boys and girls for the previous 20 consecutive years
(Goldenbach, 2009).
The number of females participating in high school athletics has increased over the decades. In 1971, for every 12 male high school athletic participants, there was one female high school athletic participant. Specifically, there were 3.60 million boys participating in high school athletic teams compared to 294,000 high school females athletes (Reith, 2004). In 1972,
Congress passed Title IX, a federal law that prohibits sex discrimination in any school and school district that receives federal money. Title IX of the 1972 Education Amendments was the first legislation to require equal access for all persons, regardless of sex, to any educational activity. The initial interpretation was that it applied only to the specific program that was receiving any federal funds. Title IX was revised by Congress in 1987 to apply throughout the educational institution. Any program within the institution receiving federal funds was required to provide equal access for all persons (Flores, 2001). As a direct result of Title IX, a significant growth in the number of females participating in college and high school athletics has been
2
observed. Athletics, in particular for females, has never been the same since (Fellmeth, 2010).
Female athletic participation supporters across the country began to realize that Title IX would be paramount in the advancement of gender equity in public high school athletic programs. As a direct result of Title IX, growth in high school athletic participation was highlighted in a report by Time magazine in 1997:
When it (Title IX) was first passed, there were 31,000 women participating in intercollegiate athletics. There are now more than 120,000 female athletes in the nation’s colleges….Even more impressive is the growth of girls’ sports in high schools. While the number of boy athletes remains the same as it did in 1971 (approximately 3.6 million), the number of girl athletes has increased from 294, 000 in ’71 to 2.4 million in ‘95 (Wulf,
¶ 5).
Since the passage of Title IX, nearly three million females had participated on a high school athletic team by 2010 (Fellmeth, 2010).
On the national level, Texas is a prominent player in the educational picture. Nationally,
Texas is second in the number of students enrolled in public schools. There were over 4.5 million students enrolled in Texas public schools in 2009. California is the only state with more students, 6 million, enrolled in public schools (NCES, 2011). Gerald and Hussar (2010) projected 1) a 9.00% increase in public school enrollment between 2006 and 2018 and 2) that out of the 34 states expected for increased enrollment, Texas would rank third with a 32.10% increase during the subsequent 12 years.
The racial demographics in Texas are also changing rapidly. Hispanics, already a dominant racial force in Texas, are expected to become the majority population group by the year 2020 (Assanie, 2005). This change will shift Anglos to the second most populous ethnicity
3
in Texas. By the year 2040, it is projected that Hispanics will account for over 50.00% of the population, and Anglos will only account for approximately 33.00% of the total state population.
For South and Central Texas, the changes in demographics are predicted to be even greater by
2040. San Antonio and Austin, for example, are projected to be 61.00% and 44.00% Hispanic by 2040, respectively (Assanie, 2005).
As the growing Hispanic population in Texas merges with the continuous growth in women’s athletics as a result of Title IX, the number of Hispanic females who participate in extracurricular activities is also steadily increasing. Hispanic children make up 91% of school enrollment growth (Scharrer, 2010). As the number of Hispanic school children rapidly increases, the number of Hispanic females participating in extracurricular activities is also rapidly increasing. As South Texas’ demographics shift and the Hispanic population increases, the region is positioned to have the second highest number of Hispanic females participating in extracurricular activities, following California. As the racial demographics in the United States begin to more closely mirror the changes taking force in Texas, the nation will have an opportunity to use Texas as a resource while preparing for future national demographic shifts.
Improving the quality of education all students are receiving in the public schools is a focus of our nation. While addressing the students of the United States on September 8, 2009,
President Barack Obama professed the following: “What you make of your education will decide nothing less than the future of this country. The future of America depends on you. What you’re learning in school today will determine whether we as a nation can meet our greatest challenges in the future” (The White House, 2009).
Education has increasingly been driven by a high-stake/high-accountability environment that is reflected in our public schools across the nation. In 1983, the landmark report, A Nation
4
at Risk, was the catalyst to the improvement of our public schools. This document is referred to as the most important reform document of the century (Nation at risk, 2008). A Nation at Risk called upon schools to turn back a rising tide of educational mediocrity that was perceived to be threatening American competitiveness and living standards (NCEE, 1983). In 2001, President
George W. Bush proposed the No Child Left Behind Act, referred to as the NCLB. The NCLB supports standards-based educational reform and enforces establishing measurable goals to improve student success. Each state must maintain adequate yearly progress. By the end of the
2013-2014 school year, all students must meet or exceed the State’s proficient level of academic achievement on State assessments (NCLB, 2001).
Texas has additional accountability requirements, including the State of Texas
Assessment of Academic Readiness, referred to as the STAAR. This criterion-referenced assessment program is used for the 12 end-of-course assessments mandated by SB 1031 in 2007 and the new grade 3-8 assessments mandated by HB 3 in the 2009 legislative session. The
STAAR tests were first administered in the 2011-2012 school year and are more rigorous than previous state accountability assessments, TAKS or Texas Assessment of Knowledge and Skill.
The STAAR measures a child’s performance, as well as academic growth over each child’s academic career (TEA, 2011).
Extracurricular athletic activities are a major part of the educational delivery programs in the United States. Students who participate in extracurricular athletic activities spend time participating in these activities during the instructional day and often devote additional time outside the regular instructional school day. In this day and age of testing, accountability, and diminishing funding, it is becoming increasingly important to determine what, if any, effects these activities have on educational outcomes. Previous research suggests that involvement in
5
extracurricular activities, such as sports, increases students’ overall interest and commitment to school. In addition, the students’ engagement and more personal student-teacher contact are increased, students have more positive attitudes about school, and there is an increased parentschool contact (Crain, 1981). The literature suggests that participation in athletic activities may have a beneficial effect on students’ state of mind, intellectual growth, and empowerment
(Sadovskii & Sadovskii, 1993; Fejgin 1994; Eitle & Eitle 2002; Cronsnoe, 2002; Videon 2002;
Lipscomb, 2006).
Extracurricular activities are described as student activities that fall outside of state curriculum at a school or university. These activities exist at multiple levels of education: elementary schooling, secondary schooling, as well as college and university settings. The participation in extracurricular athletic activities is a predominate force in the lives of many high school students (Bucknavage & Worrell, 2005).
Participation in extracurricular activities in Texas public schools is governed by The
University Interscholastic League, UIL (UIL, 2012). The UIL contains an academic division, a music division, and an athletic division. Under the athletic component, the league administers and supports 14 different sports in secondary schools in Texas. For males, these sports include
1) football, 2) team tennis, 3) cross country, 4) swimming and diving, 5) wrestling, 6) basketball,
7) soccer, 8) tennis, 9) golf, 10) track and field, and 11) baseball. Females have the opportunity to participate in 1) volleyball, 2) team tennis, 3) cross country, 4) swimming and diving, 5) wrestling, 6) basketball, 7) soccer, 8) tennis, 9) golf, 10) track and field, and 11) softball. The
UIL advocates that students who participate in athletic activities are motivated to place a high priority on attending school and meeting the minimal passing expectations in all courses. The pursuit of excellence and opportunity to test themselves against their own accomplishment and
6
the accomplishments of others is a driving force for students who enjoy participating in athletic activities (UIL, 2012).
In addition, all students who participate in extracurricular activities in Texas are governed by UIL’s Constitution and Contest Rules and the academic requirements contained within. One requirement is that a student who participates in extracurricular activities must maintain passing
(70.00% or higher) grades in order to participate in athletics or other extracurricular activities.
According to Jordan (1999), “student athletes are often extrinsically motivated, as demonstrated by those students who strive to avoid course failure so that they can remain eligible to participate in extracurricular athletic activities” (p. 3). Also, for a student to participate in a game, s/he must be present at school for the day.
Since the late 80s/early 90s, a vast amount of resources and time have been devoted to extracurricular activities in public schools. Rombokas (1995) reported:
Examination of the effects of extracurricular activities is especially important in an era of limited financial resources for schools. For many years the perceptions and accountability in school programs have been the topic of considerable debate due to inflation and tightened budgets. The last decade has brought a new emphasis on academic achievement. As a result, educators and the public have looked critically at the activity programs offered in secondary schools. Some programs have been eliminated to use resources elsewhere. Critical review and decision making on programs have been made of financial grounds (p. 4).
Often times, students, parents, school personnel, and community members are heavily involved and deeply invested in extracurricular activities. As school districts throughout the
United States are faced with the persistent need to tighten budget expenditures, the notion of
7
eliminating extracurricular athletic activities in the public school setting is often discussed. The benefits of the participation of extracurricular activities must be determined. Researchers have exposed benefits of participation in extracurricular athletic activities with multiple student outcome variables. These variables have included personal and social development, academic achievement, self-concept, focus of control, delinquency and problem behaviors (Bucknavage &
Worrell, 2005). Miller et al. (2005) reported a strong relationship between scholastic achievement and high school sports participation.
Statement of the Problem
As South Texas demographics shift and the Hispanic population increases, educators must review data and evaluate current educational programs. In an environment of decreasing resources and increasing accountability, the impact of extracurricular athletic activities on student achievement in the Hispanic population must be explored.
There are multiple studies exploring the effects of student participation in extracurricular athletic activities. The variables examined range from academic achievement to social development. A review of literature showed that the topic of the impact of extracurricular athletic activities had not been adequately investigated among Hispanic female students.
Theoretical Framework
Astin’s Input-Environment-Outcome model provided the foundational lens which was utilized to conceptualize the study (1993). Astin developed the model to evaluate students’ journey throughout college. He evaluated the characteristics of students before entering college, which is referred to as the Input. The experiences college students encounter during their college career is considered the Environment. Astin considered the Outcome as the characteristics of the student at the end of their college career. According to Astin (1993): “Inputs refer to the
8
characteristics of the student at the times of initial entry to the institution; environment refers to the various programs, policies, faculty, peers, and education experiences to which the student is exposed; and outcomes refers to the student’s characteristics after the exposure to the environment” (p.7). For the purpose of the study, participation in extracurricular athletic activities of Hispanic females was the input, high school setting was the environment, and academic achievement, school attendance rates, and disciplinary referrals were the outcome measures. Purpose of the Study
The primary purpose of the study was to examine the impact of extracurricular athletic activities on academic achievement, school attendance, and disciplinary referrals among
Hispanic female 11th grade students in an urban school district in South Texas. The secondary purpose of the study was to document the perspectives of Hispanic female 11th grade students regarding the positive and negative attributes of participating in extracurricular athletic activities.
The researcher had hypothesized that participation in extracurricular athletic activities would have a positive impact of academic life of the students. The study was guided by the following questions: 1. To what extent does participation in extracurricular athletic activities impact academic achievement?
2. To what extent does participation in extracurricular athletic activities impact school attendance?
3. To what extent does participation in extracurricular athletic activities impact disciplinary referrals?
9
4. What are the perspectives of Hispanic female students regarding the impact of participating in extracurricular athletic activities on their academic life?
Operational Definitions
Participation in extracurricular athletic activity was measured as a binary variable (1 = yes, 0 = no).
School attendance was measured by the total number of days attending school, out of
180.
Academic achievement was measured by 1) grade point average (GPA) on a continuum, ranging from 0.00 to 100.00, 2) TAKS reading scale score, and 3) TAKS mathematics scale score. Disciplinary referral was measured by the total number of unacceptable documented behaviors. Perspectives of the study participants were documented by analyzing the focus group qualitative data and identifying themes.
Delimitation, Limitations, and Assumptions
The study was delimited to 1) 11th grade female Hispanic students in an urban school district in South Texas, 2) predictor variable of participation in extracurricular athletic activities, and 3) the outcome measures of academic achievement, disciplinary referral, and school attendance. Due to non-probability nature of sampling, external validity was limited to study participants. Due to non-experimental nature of the study, no causal inferences are drawn. It was assumed that the quantitative data provided to the researcher were accurate and credible and that the focus group participants were honest in their discussion of pros and cons of extracurricular athletic activities. It was assumed that the researcher remained academically
10
rigorous with objectivity and subjectivity in both the quantitative and qualitative components of the study, respectively.
Significance of the Study
Research has found that keeping students engaged outside of the classroom is an important factor in their intellectual, academic, and personal growth (Akos, 2006). Students who are given the opportunity to participate in extracurricular activities such as clubs, athletics, drama, and music, are often more connected to the school. These extracurricular activities can
“save” students, as they provides them a chance to become a part of a community (Akos, 2006).
Students learn how to get along with peers and operate in “real-life” activities. Research has shown grades improve and students are less likely to drop out of high school when they are involved in extracurricular activities (Cairns & Mahoney, 1997). Multiple studies have documented the benefits of the participation in extracurricular activities and its correlation to academic success. For example, Melnick, Sabo, and Vanfossen (1992) noted:
“Athlete” verses “nonathlete” studies now number in the hundreds. Seemingly, only the creativity of the researcher has limited the choice of the dependent variable studied. The consequences of high school athletic participation on grades, choice of high school program, social values, popularity, peers’ educational plans, global and academic selfesteem, parents’ and teachers’ academic encouragement, competitive orientation, educational aspirations, delinquent behavior, application and acceptance to college, academic progress in college, graduation rates, occupational aspirations and status, earnings expectations and adult earnings are just some of the variables that have received attention (¶ 3).
11
A vast amount of resources and time are devoted to extracurricular athletic activities in public schools across the nation. Often times, students, parents, school personnel, and community members are heavily involved and deeply invested in these activities. As school districts throughout the United States are faced with the persistent need to tighten budget expenditures in our schools, the discussion of eliminating extracurricular activities in the public school setting is often discussed. The benefits of the participation of extracurricular athletic activities must be determined.
The significance of the current study is that it provides the concerned individuals with findings which have theoretical and practical implications. It was found that Hispanic females who participated in extracurricular activities had greater academic achievement and increased school attendance than did Hispanic females who did not participate in such activities, which may be used by decision makers in South Texas school districts as evidence of the effectiveness of the intervention. The study may be used as a documentation of the importance of encouraging and supporting female students to participate in extracurricular athletic activities.
12
CHAPTER II
Review of Literature
The relevant research and literature are organized into six major sections. The first section includes the literature detailing the history of women in sports and the impact of the implementation of Title IX. The second section provides national and state changes in demographics. In the third section, Hispanic participation in sports is presented. Texas high school athletic participation is discussed in the fourth section. In the fifth section, study’s theoretical framework is discussed. In the sixth section, academic achievement, disciplinary referrals, and school attendance rates are examined.
Title IX – Women in Sports
In 1972, President Richard M. Nixon signed the Title IX, a federal law passed as part of the Education Amendments Act of 1972 by the U. S. Congress. Title IX of the Education
Amendments Act of 1972 states, “No person in the United States shall on the basis of sex be excluded from participation in, be denied the benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under any education program or activity receiving Federal assistance (Education Amendment of 1972,
1990, ¶ 1).
The intent of the law is to prohibit any federally assisted or funded educational program from engaging in sex discrimination. By July 21, 1978, any institution receiving any federal funding was required to be in full compliance with the law. Title IX required equal access for all persons, regardless of sex, to participate in any educational activity receiving any amount of federal financial aid (Flores, 2001). The passage of this law paved the way for women to participate in sports in public schools receiving federal funding. Title IX is the driving catalyst
13
that has done more than anything else to advance women’s sports in the United States
(Thomson, 2006).
The goal of interscholastic athletics is to provide both boys and girls the opportunity to develop mental and physical abilities while cultivating good habits and lifelong skills (Singer,
Hausenblas, & Janelle, 2001). Before Title IX was passed, athletic programs were recognized as an important part of the educational process and were subjected to the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment (Johnson, 1994). Title IX added the general rule that an institution covered by the act is forbidden from discriminating on the bases of sex. Schools are in compliance with Title IX if: 1) both the number of males and females that participate in athletics are proportional to the school enrollment numbers; or 2) the school has a history of developing interests and abilities of members of the underrepresented sex; or 3) the school’s existing athletic programs completely accommodate the interests and abilities of the underrepresented sex
(NCWGE, 2008).
The rapid expansion of the number of female student athletes is correlated to Title IX.
Educational institutions are not required to provide extracurricular athletic opportunities for students. Compliance issues with the 14th Amendment and Title IX are raised when separate athletic programs are provided for males and females (Mahoney, 1995). When discussing student-athletes, there are two factors for Title IX equality: 1) whether equal opportunity was provided when separate teams are provided for males and females; and 2) whether students of one sex must be permitted to try-out and participate on the other sex’s team if only one team is offered. Participation in sports, unlike education, is a privilege and not a right. Schools are not obligated to provide athletic programs to students. However, Title IX requires that any athletic
14
opportunities that are offered to students are made available on equal terms for all eligible participants. In high schools across the United States, Title IX immediately created waves of change. Just six years after the enactment of Title IX legislation, the percentage of girls playing team sports had jumped six fold, from about 4% to 25% (Parker-Pope, 2010). Currently, one in three girls participates in high school athletics throughout the United States, compared to a mere one in 27 before the implementation of Title IX (NGWSD, 2010). In addition, the average number of women’s team sports offered at schools is at an all time high. Prior to Title IX, there were a little over two women’s team sports offered at each school. As of 2010, high schools offered approximately eight sports for female athletes (NGWSD, 2010). Not only has the number of sporting activities available to female athletes increased; the overall number of female participants has also experienced a dramatic increase, presumably as a direct result of the Title
IX legislation. Overall participation numbers have drastically increased as a result of Title IX.
In 1972, 294,015 females participated in athletic activities in public schools across the nation.
This number has drastically risen to 3,172,637 females participating in athletic activities for the
2009-2010 school year (Fellmeth, 2010).
In the State of Texas, girls have also benefited from the passage of Title IX through increased opportunity to participate in athletics. Texas leads the nation with the largest number of girls participating in organized sports. The Texas State Higher Education Coordinating Board
(2002) reported that the increasing number of girls participating in sports has a direct educational benefit, since girls who participate in sports often graduate from high school at higher rates and have higher grade point averages than non-athlete girls. Troutman and Dufur (2007) showed that females who engage in high school sports have higher odds of completing college than their nonathletic counterparts. 15
Changing Demographics
Hispanic students are rapidly becoming a larger segment of the U.S. public school population. The Bureau of the Census in the 2000 decennial census required all federal agencies to use a minimum of two ethnicities for data collection and presentation: 1) Hispanic or Latino or
2) Not Hispanic or Latino. According to the U.S Census Bureau, population estimates, as of July
1, 2011, there were roughly 52.0 million Hispanics living in the United States, representing approximately 16.70% of total population, and making people of Hispanic origin the nation’s largest ethnic minority. The U.S. Hispanic population for July, 2050 is estimated to reach 132.8 million, constituting approximately 30% of the U.S. population by that date. Approximately 10 million Hispanic students are enrolled in the public school system in the United States, comprising nearly one-fifth of all K-12 public school students (Piscatelli, 2008). By the year
2050, the Hispanic school-age population is projected to increase by 166%, from 11 million in
2006 to 28 million (Fry & Gonzales, 2008).
The State of Texas, given its geographic proximity to Mexico and Central America, has always had a significant Hispanic presence, and like the United States in general, the Hispanic population in Texas continues to steadily increase. According to Murdock, director of the United
States Census Bureau, by 2050, the number of Texas public school students is expected to swell to nine million from roughly five million now, and nearly two-thirds will be Hispanic (Smith,
2012). According to the Texas Education Agency’s (TEA) student enrollment numbers in Texas public schools for the 2010-2011 school year, Hispanic students represented 50.20% of the 4,933,617
Texas public school students (Texas Education Agency, 2011). Hispanic students now make up the majority of the Texas public school student population for the first time in Texas history. As the state continues to experience a shift of demographics, the border towns are expected to continue
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to reflect the most dramatic demographic changes. Texas’ current demographic distribution is a replica of the future demographics of the United States.
Hispanic Participation in Sports
Through discipline and team-work, the betterment of Mexican youth and society is a direct result of athletics (Arbena, 2002). The Mexican philosopher-politician-educator, José
Vasconcelos, linked playing games, sports, and physical education to the overall improvement of morality and health. Unfortunately, there are limited studies in the literature that outline the significance of Hispanic participation in various sports (Iber & Regalado, 2007).
Unfortunately, there is surprisingly little data and analysis on other, ethnic and racial groups in the United States. Despite some promising work in the late 1980s and 1990s by Don Sabo, Mike Melnick and Beth Vanfossen in conjunction with the Women’s sport
Foundation (Sabo, Melnick, & Vanfossen 1993), Hispanics or Latino/as, by many measures now the largest minority group in America, are very little analyzed or understood (Hartmann, 2008, p. 19).
The majority of the literature focuses on the Hispanic participation in professional baseball in the United States. Significant number of Hispanic players entered the major leagues in the mid-1950s. The players had to overcome several cultural differences as they were not prepared for the way race was politically, economically, and socially constructed in the United
States. Language was the primary barrier that led to many Latino players being exploited as they were playing baseball in a foreign country (Lomax, 2004, p. 60).
The Women’s Sports Foundation (2011) reported that rural Latina athletes who participated in sports had significantly higher grades, higher graduation rates, and were more likely to attend college than their peers who did not participate in such activities. According to
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Sabo and Veliz, minority girls appear to be one of the more disadvantaged populations since they are affected by both gender and racial inequities in sport (2008). Minimal studies have been published discussing specifically the effects of Hispanic females’ participation in athletic events.
Texas High School Athletics and the UIL
Texas has a rich history and tradition of athletics in both college and high schools across the state. Miller (2004) noted that “As early as 1901, the catalog of Wiley College proudly announced that athletic sports are not only allowed, but encouraged. At this small school in
Marshall, Texas, institutional policy stressed the notion that the best education is that which develops a strong, robust body as well as other parts of the human makeup” (p.154). In the State of Texas, athletic participation is a major factor in the lives of many high school students. Based on the book Friday Night Lights by H.G. Bissinger (1990), the story of Odessa, Texas’ Permian
High School Panthers football team has been made famous by the film and television series.
Bissinger’s journalistic account has documented the complexities and “larger-than-life” personification of high school student-athletes often associated with Texas athletic participation.
For the 2010-2011 school year, Texas had more students participate in athletics than did any other state in the nation. According to the National Federation of State High School
Associations (2012), there were 786, 626 total high school athletes in Texas, 481,573 were males and 305,053 were females.
Research has shown that participation in high school athletics can lead to improved academic performance. Lipscomb (2006) found a two percent increase in standardized mathematics and science test scores on a national survey sample from high school students who participated in sports. Higher grades, fewer disciplinary problems, increased attendance, and a greater desire to attend college are some of the positive academic outcomes derived from
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participation in high school sports. These positive outcomes are seen in both girls and boys and some have suggested that girls may experience greater benefits than do boys (Staurowsky et al.,
2009). “A fairly straightforward explanation of differences in grades, school attendance, graduation rates, and postsecondary educational aspirations is that unlike the non-athlete counterparts, athletes are motivated to meet certain academic standards to remain athletically eligible” (Nixon, 2008, p.204).
In Texas, athletic eligibility in public schools is governed by the University
Interscholastic League (UIL). In 1909, The University of Texas at Austin created the UIL to provide guidance to teachers and sponsors of extracurricular activities. Today, the UIL governs
Texas public schools’ athletic, music, drama, and academic contests by providing students with educational experiences through competition on an equitable basis. The UIL believes that participation in extracurricular activities motivates students to place a high priority on attending school and making better grades.
The purpose of the UIL is to organize and properly supervise contests that assist in preparing students for citizenship. It aims to provide healthy, character building, educational activities carried out under rules providing for good sportsmanship and fair play for all participants. Sensible organized competition under proper controls has demonstrated its value and has furnished inspiration to talented students for many years.
The UIL does not provide a contest for every student but does fill the need for those with the physical and intellectual capacity to excel in activities beyond the classroom. The
UIL has the active support of most of the school executives, teachers, and citizens in
Texas (UIL, 2012, ¶ 2).
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The UIL advocates that students who participate in athletic activities are motivated to place a high priority on attending school and meeting the minimal passing expectations in all courses. “The pursuit of excellence and opportunity to test themselves against their own accomplishment and the accomplishments of others is a driving force for students who enjoy participating in athletic activities” (UIL, 2012).
In order for a student to participate in an extracurricular activity in Texas, the student must meet the eligibility requirements and standards set by the UIL and the TEA. According to
UIL, students may participate in interscholastic activities if they are full-time students, have been in regular attendance, initially enrolled in 9th grade not more than four years ago, and are less than 19 years old, are not recruited, live with parents inside the school district attendance zone, have not moved or changed schools for athletic purposes, have not violated the athletic amateur rule, and meet the specific academic eligibility requirements. The academic eligibility requirements governed by UIL are known as “No Pass No Play” in Texas. A student who receives less than a 70 in any class or a student with disabilities who fails to meet the standards in the Individual Education Plan may not participate in extracurricular activities for three school weeks. An ineligible student may only practice during this three week period. The student has the ability to regain eligibility after a seven calendar day waiting period had ended, following the three school week evaluation period if the principal and teachers determine that the athlete has earned a passing grade of 70 or above in all classes. Students who pass remain eligible until the end of the next grading period. All grades of athletes are checked at the end of each grading period to ensure academic eligibility (UIL, 2012).
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Theoretical Framework
Involvement in extracurricular athletic activities was the focus of the study. Alexander
W. Astin (1999) defined student involvement as “the amount of physical and psychological energy that the student devotes to the academic experience” (p. 518). Students will develop and learn more when they are involved in the social and academic facets of college, according to
Astin’s model of student involvement (1999). A student who chooses to be highly involved in social and academic facets often obtains increased grades, graduation rate, as well as leadership and interpersonal skills (Astin, 1999).
Astin (1993) developed The Input-Environment-Outcome (I-E-O) model as a guiding framework for the assessment of higher education (Figure 1). The I-E-O model is utilized to emphasize the influence student and institutional characteristics have on the development and learning of the students. Astin’s educational assessment model is contingent upon three key factors: student input (I), the educational environment (E), and student outcome (O) (Astin,
1993).
Figure 1
Astin’s Input-Environment-Outcome (I-E-O) Model
Environment
Input Output
A B
C
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Input differences are controlled utilizing the I-E-O model; thus, resulting in decreased biases and more accurate estimates of how environmental variables affect student outcomes.
Input “refers to those personal qualities the student brings initially to the education program”
(Astin, 1993, p.18). Astin (1993) defined inputs as the characteristics inherent to a student and are most commonly demographic descriptors or personal qualities present at the time of enrollment. For the purpose of the study, input consisted of demographic information including, sex, ethnicity, socio-economic status, and age. Input directly influences both the environment and the output in the I-E-O model.
According to Astin, environment “refers to the student’s actual experiences during the educational program” (1993, p.18). “In the broadest sense, the environment encompasses everything that happens to a student during the course of an educational program that might conceivably influence the outcomes under consideration” (Astin, 1993, p. 81). Anything that happens to the program course that could possibly impact the student is referred to as the environment and therefore impacts the outcome. For the purpose of the study, the environment was high school extracurricular athletic activities.
Output “refers to the ‘talents’ we are trying to develop in our educational program”
(Astin, 1993, p. 18). “Outcomes are the desired aims and objectives of the educational program…” (Astin, 1993, p. 38). Astin (1993) classified output as either cognitive or affective in nature. Academic achievement, disciplinary referrals, and school attendance rates were the study’s outcome measures.
Although Astin’s I-E-O Model guided the study, Tinto’s Theory of Student Departure assisted the researcher in conceptualizing the relation between participation in extracurricular athletic activities and the outcome measures. Tinto (1987) stated that the student leaving an
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institution is the result of the student failing to integrate into the social and academic communities of college. Tinto believed it was the institution’s responsibility to create an environment where the integration process is facilitated. Tinto’s model requires educational systems to evaluate their program to ensure they are providing students with the richest and most integrative learning communities. Tinto argued that student attrition is the result of students failing to make an emotional connection between themselves and the institution. Students must receive support, feedback, have high expectations, and should be involved (Tinto, 2009). Tinto stated that “involvement in those communities, especially those that are directed toward student learning, is the vehicle through which student learning and development occur and persistence arises” (Tinto & Goodsell, 1993, p. 132). According to Tinto (1990), successful student involvement is dependent upon social involvement, in and out of the classroom. Students should be involved in extracurricular activities, clubs, and organizations throughout the educational journey. Social isolation is a forecaster for student attrition (Tinto, 1998). Astin and Tinto stressed the importance of building a relationship between the student and his/her institution of higher learning for academic success and retention. Although the I-E-O Model and Theory of
Student Departure focused on college students, both may also be reflective of the need for student success in high school.
Academic Achievement, School Attendance, and Disciplinary Referral
Academic Achievement
Students with greater academic achievement are more likely to persist and succeed in completion of educational credentials than those who obtain lower academic achievement.
Within this context, students must maintain a specified minimum academic standing to be able to continue to participate in extracurricular activities, including athletics (Clery, 2010). School-
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related behaviors that enhance individual academic success are positively related to sport participation in high school (Rombokas, 1995). Several research studies highlight a positive connection between athletic participation and academic performance for both boys and girls.
Interestingly, several researchers noted that girls may reap more positive benefits from sport participation than do boys. More specifically, sport participation has been shown to improve girls’ performance in traditionally male-dominated subjects such as mathematics and science
(Staurowsky et al., 2009).
For the purpose of the study, academic achievement was measured by grade point average (GPA). The GPA system is attributed to William Farish (1759 - 1837), a scholar from the University of Cambridge. Farish was a British tutor in chemistry and natural philosophy.
The GPA system Farish developed was first implemented in 1792 at Cambridge. Other university professors and secondary school instructors began utilizing the system and eventually it became a common grading system (Soh, 2011). A traditional GPA ranges from a 0.0 to a 4.0.
An “A” yields 4.0 grade points, a “B” yields 3.0 grade points, a “C” yields 2.0 grade points, a
“D” yields 1.0 grade points, and a “F” yields 0.0 grade points. A GPA is calculated by dividing the total amount of grade points earned by the total amount of credit hours attempted. In Texas public school systems, GPAs are often based on a 100 point scale (e.g., the district in which this study took place). A cumulative grade point average is a calculation of the average of all the student’s grades for all semesters and courses completed during the academic term or if specified, the entire high school coursework.
The state mandated test for students in Texas is the State of Texas Assessments of
Academic Readiness (STAAR). Mandated by HB 3 in 2009, the STAAR is used in third through eighth grade. Twelve end-of-course assessments are used in the high school. Prior to the
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STAAR, Texas public school systems used the Texas Assessment of Knowledge and Skills
(TAKS) as the state mandated assessment. The transition from TAKS to STAAR began in the
2011-2012 academic year. At the time of conducting the study, high school sophomore, junior, and senior students were assessed using the TAKS. Consequently, for the purpose of the study,
TAKS reading and mathematics scale scores were used as measures of academic achievement.
School Attendance Rates
School attendance rates are the ratio of students present to the total number of students enrolled at the school. Attendance rates are given in terms of average daily attendance rate
(ADA) or just how many students are in school on a given day (Reardon, 2008). In many states, including Texas, school funding is directly tied to student attendance and enrollment (DiMassa,
2004). In addition to school funding issues, attendance rates are critical to each individual student’s success. Students with positive attendance records are cited as having stronger test performance (Gottfried, 2009). It is suggested that increased attendance is a direct indicator of school success.
Many school districts across the United States are challenged by the problem of student absenteeism. Preventing student absenteeism and improving attendance rates have always been areas of concern for educators (Reardon, 2008). Over the last 30 years, absence rates have increased drastically (Bauer, 1996). While some absences are unavoidable and considered excused, Bauer (1996) defined chronic absenteeism “as an absence from school or class that does not qualify as legal or excused under state code or the school districts’ attendance policies”.
After 18 unexcused absences during the 180 days of school in a Texas public school, the student is considered a chronic absentee.
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According to Roby (2004), absenteeism is a detriment to a student’s academic progress.
The work of Dynarski and Gleason (1999) provides support to this concept, noting that students with the highest chronic unexcused attendance rate have the lowest academic achievement.
Within this concept, Landin (1996) professed that a positive correlation exists between attendance and standardized test performance. Students’ presence in the classroom affects the learning student opportunities; therefore, attendance rates are considered important by educators.
According to DeKalb (1999), you cannot educate an empty chair. Higher attendance rates in class, lectures, and discussion groups are related to higher GPAs (Cavron, Nemerofsky, Rock, &
Kerins, 1996). Athletic participation can be viewed as holding-power mechanisms because of its ability to keep the student-athletes attending school daily, be prepared to accept the normative codes governing behavior, and be motivated to take part in this/her own education (Jordan,
1999).
Disciplinary Referrals
Disciplinary referrals are defined as events in which a school staff member observes a student violating a school rule or policy and submits documentation of that event to a school administrator, who then delivers a consequence to the student (Irvin et al., 2006). Schools utilize office referrals as a method for monitoring and managing disruptive behavior. An office disciplinary referral represents an event where 1) a student is engaged in a behavior that violates a rule or social norm in the school; 2) the problem behavior is observed or identified by a member of the school staff; and 3) administrative staff prepares a written document that defines the event (Sprague, Sugai, Horner, & Walker, 1999).
The value of a disciplinary referral must be utilized with caution. A major advantage of disciplinary referrals is that it is an immediate source of information and data that are
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documented and accessible (Skiba, Peterson, & Williams, 1997). A limitation of utilizing disciplinary referrals as a reliable source of information is that each teacher may have his/her own interpretation of disciplinary referral procedures. According to Wright and Dusek (1998), the same student behavior may evoke different responses from teachers in different schools, and the relationship between teachers and administrators may influence the use of disciplinary referrals. A disciplinary referral is completed by a school staff member who believes that the action or behavioral choice of a student warrants the intervention of a school administrator. The staff member completes the disciplinary referral and specifies the reason for the referral. A disruption in the learning process occurs when the teacher must redirect the unwarranted behaviors and document these behaviors on a disciplinary referral. The administrator then reviews the referral and investigates the allegations if necessary within a prescribed period of time. The administrator will then process the referral if deemed necessary and enter the referral into the district’s disciplinary management system (Osher, Bear, Sprague, & Doyle, 2010).
Research indicates that poor academic achievement has a moderate association with students receiving an office referral (McIntosh, Flannery, Sugai, Braun, & Cochrane, 2008).
Tobin and Sugai (1999) found that three or more disciplinary referrals that resulted in suspensions in ninth grade predicted school failure in high school. Morrison, Anthony, Storino, and Dillion (2001) examined the relationships among disciplinary referrals and grade point averages and concluded students with no previous disciplinary referrals had higher GPAs than did students with disciplinary referrals.
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Summary
As a result from the passing of Title IX, more females have been participating in extracurricular activities in high school than ever before. Participation in extracurricular activities promotes student development and social growth among students. These benefits explain the positive effect of participation on student achievement (Broh, 2002). The Hispanic population is rapidly increasing in Texas as well as the nation as a result of quickly changing demographics. School leaders, parents, and all education stakeholders must be cognizant of the impact of participation in extracurricular athletic activities on Hispanic females’ academic achievement, disciplinary referrals, and school attendance rates.
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CHAPTER III
Method
The purpose of the study was to examine the impact of extracurricular athletic activities on academic achievement, disciplinary referrals, and school attendance among female Hispanic
11th grade students in an urban school district in South Texas. The study was guided by the following research questions:
1. To what extent does participation in extracurricular athletic activities impact academic achievement?
2. To what extent does participation in extracurricular athletic activities impact attendance?
3. To what extent does participation in extracurricular athletic activities impact disciplinary referrals?
4. What are the perspectives of Hispanic female students regarding the impact of participating in extracurricular athletic activities?
Research Design
The mixed methods research study employed an explanatory sequential design (ESD), which is conducted to better understand the quantitative results (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2011).
Using the two-step ESD, study began with the collection and analysis of quantitative data, followed by the collection and analysis of qualitative, and concluded by synthesizing the quantitative and qualitative results to draw conclusions, discuss the findings, and suggest implications. The design is depicted in Figure 2.
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Figure 2
Explanatory Sequential Design
Quantitative
The quantitative component of the study was ex post facto in nature, employing a causalcomparative design (Gall, Gall, & Borg, 2007). Ex post facto studies are conducted to test hypotheses and to investigate relationships among variables (Ary, Jacobs, Razavieh, & Sorensen,
2009). The characteristic-present group consisted of the students who had participated in extracurricular athletic activities. The students who had not participated in any extracurricular athletic activities formed the comparison group. The independent variable in the study was participation in extracurricular athletic activities with two levels: 1) extracurricular athletic participation and 2) no extracurricular athletic participation. The independent variable was not manipulated by the researchers; thus, no causal inferences were drawn. There were five outcome measures: 1) 11th grade GPA, 2) TAKS reading scale score, 3) TAKS mathematics scale score,
4) the total number of days attending school during the 2011-2012 school year, and 5) the total number of disciplinary referrals during the 2011-2012 school year.
Qualitative
The qualitative component of the study used two focus groups. The primary purpose of conducting focus group is to draw out respondents’ feelings, attitudes, and beliefs within a group context (Gibbs, 1997). The focus groups provide the researcher with a large amount of data at a
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low cost while gathering information through interviewing a small sample of people at one point in time (Marshall & Rossman, 2011). By conducting a focus group, the participants interact with each other and share perspectives, feelings, and beliefs. This technique allows the participants to share information in the comfort of a group setting (Gall, Gall, & Borg, 2007). For the purpose of the study, focus groups were conducted to gain insight into the perspectives of Hispanic female students on whether the participation in extracurricular athletic activities impacted academic achievement, attendance rates, and disciplinary referrals. The qualitative component of the study was performed under the theoretical lens of interpretivism. An attempt to understand an individual’s social reality and being concerned with the meanings and experiences of individuals is interpretivism (Crotty, 1998). Using the lens of interpretivism, the researcher attempted to understand and explain the students’ perspectives of participating in extracurricular athletic activities.
Instrumentation
Quantitative
For the purpose of the study, outcome measures were TAKS reading scale scores, TAKS mathematics scale scores, GPA, disciplinary referrals, and attendance rates. All data were pertained to 2011 – 2012 school year. As indicated in chapters I and II, the State of Texas
Assessment of Academic Readiness (STAAR) was begun to be implemented with the 8th grades in 2011-2012. The study’s 11 the graders had taken the Texas Assessment of Knowledge and
Skills (TAKS).
The TAKS test results are used to determine a student’s knowledge and understanding of the Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills (TEKS), the statewide curriculum (Technical Digest,
2008). The approximate range of the TAKS scale scores is between 1200 and 3300. A scale
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score below 2100 indicates that the student did not meet standard. A scale score between 2100 and 2400 indicates that the student met the passing standard on the TAKS. A 2400 scale score and above indicates the student received a commended performance on the assessment. The psychometric properties of TAKS are documented and show that it is a reliable and valid test
(Texas Education Agency, 2011).
The school district in the study utilized a 100 point scale for GPA. A cumulative GPA is calculated by averaging all of the student’s grades for all semester and courses completed during the academic high school career.
A staff member completes a disciplinary referral when an action or behavior choice of a student warrants the intervention of a school administrator. The administrator processes the referral and if deemed necessary, the referral is entered into the district’s disciplinary management system. For the purpose of the study, the total number of disciplinary referrals over the school year was used.
Student attendance rate is the ratio of the total number of days a student is present to the total number of days of instruction in a school year. For the purpose of the study, data were collected for the total number of days present during the 2011-2012 school year.
Qualitative
The perspectives of female Hispanic students on the impact of extracurricular athletic activities were obtained from two student focus groups. In accordance with the Explanatory
Sequential Model, the quantitative data were analyzed and the results were used to derive the lead questions for the characteristic-present focus group:
1. Tell me about how you became involved in athletics.
2. What does being an athlete mean to you?
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3. What are some of the benefits of participating in extracurricular athletic activities?
4. What are some negative aspects of participating in extracurricular athletic activities?
5. Tell me about other activities in which you are currently involved.
6. What, if anything, would you change about your high school experience if you could?
7. How does your family view your involvement in extracurricular athletic activities?
8. Can you describe a typical day in your life as a student athlete?
9. Do you think participation in extracurricular athletic activities affects academic performance positively?
10. Do you think participation in extracurricular athletic activities affects attendance positively? 11. Do you think participation in extracurricular athletic activities affects disciplinary referrals positively?
The following lead questions guided the comparison focus group:
1. Tell me about why you decided to not become involved in athletics.
2. What are some of the benefits of not participating in extracurricular athletic activities?
3. What are some negative aspects of not participating in extracurricular athletic activities?
4. Tell me about activities in which you are currently involved.
5. What, if anything, would you change about your high school experience if you could?
6. How does your family view your decision to not be involved in extracurricular athletic activities? 7. Can you describe a typical day in your life at school?
8. Do you think participation in extracurricular athletic activities affects academic performance positively?
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9. Do you think participation in extracurricular athletic activities affects attendance positively? 10. Do you think participation in extracurricular athletic activities affects disciplinary referrals positively?
Subject Selection
The study took place in an urban South Texas school district covering 68 square miles.
At the time of the study, the district consisted of 58 total campuses, including 37 elementary campuses, 11 middle school campuses, 6 high school campuses, and 4 special campuses.
District enrollment was 60,205, with 78.60% of students being of Hispanic ethnicity. According to the United States Department of Education’s federal standards for collecting and reporting ethnicity, ethnicity data are collected for all students. Every student is identified by parent or guardian at registration as either Hispanic/Latino or Not Hispanic/Latino. In addition, 69.00% of the district’s student population was economically disadvantaged and 52.10% was considered atrisk.
As of Fall 2011, there were 10,245 students enrolled in the district’s high schools.
Specifically, there were 2,228 11th graders, of which, 788 were identified as Hispanic females.
Permission to conduct the study was obtained from the Institutional Review Board (IRB) at Texas A&M University - Corpus Christi (Appendix A). In addition, the South Texas school district granted the permission to conduct the study and use the district’s existing data (Appendix
A). Consent and assent forms were obtained from the focus group participants (Appendix A)
Quantitative
The participants for the study were the 2011 – 2012 female Hispanic 11th grade high school students in the district. The study was delimited to 11th grade because the students had participated in extracurricular activities for three years. The participants were divided into two
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groups. The characteristic-present group consisted of the students who had participated in extracurricular athletic activities (n = 544). The students who had not participated in any extracurricular athletic activities formed the comparison group (n = 244). For the purpose of the study, participation in extracurricular activities was defined as a Hispanic female junior who had participated in one or more of the following UIL sanctioned athletic events: volleyball, tennis, cross country, swimming, diving, wrestling, basketball, soccer, golf, softball and track and field.
Qualitative
For the qualitative component of the study, two non-probability samples of female students were recruited. Focus participants were recruited from a high school within the South
Texas school district where the study took place. Four (4) students who participated in extracurricular athletic activities agreed to take part in the focus group and four (4) students agreed to participate in the comparison group. Each participant signed a voluntary consent form before the start of the focus group. Parental consents were obtained from the parents of the underage participants.
Data Collection
Quantitative
The raw data were obtained from the school district, which included GPA, TAKS reading scale scores, TAKS mathematics scale scores, attendance, disciplinary referrals, and participation in extracurricular athletic activities. The only demographic data made available to the researcher were age and socio-economic-status.
Qualitative
Qualitative data were collected from two focus groups which were conducted on October
26, 2012. One focus group consisted of participants who had participated in extracurricular
35
athletic activities in high school and the other focus group consisted of participants who had not participated in extracurricular athletic activities in high school. The sessions were facilitated by the researcher, audiotaped, and later transcribed. Transcripts of each focus group are in
Appendix B.
Data Analysis
Quantitative
The data were coded and analyzed, using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences
(SPSS). Descriptive statistics were used to summarize and organize the data. A chi-square test of independence (Daniel, 1995) was performed to compare the characteristic-present and comparison groups on the basis of socio-economic status (disadvantaged or not disadvantaged).
A t-test for independent samples (Field, 2009) was used to compare the two groups on the basis of age in years.
The outcome measures of academic achievement, disciplinary referrals, and school attendance were treated as continuous variables. The independent variable, participation in extracurricular athletic activities, was a binary variable. The study participants were from five different high schools. To combine the data, a series of 2-way factorial analysis of variance
(Stevens, 2009) was performed to test the interaction effect of high school and participation in extracurricular athletic activities; none was statistically significant, which justified combining the data. A series of t-test for independent samples (Field, 2009) was performed to compare the characteristic-present and comparison groups on the basis of the five outcome measures.
Levene’s test (Field, 2009) was used to test the homogeneity of variances assumption. If the homogeneity of variances assumption were not met, Welch approximate t, which adjusts the
36
degrees of freedom to reduce the probability of making a Type I error, was used (Stevens, 1999).
Mean difference effect sizes were computed to examine the practical significance of the findings and were characterized as .2 = small effect, .5 = medium effect, and .8 = large effect (Cohen,
1988).
Group differences on the basis of socio-economic status were statistically significant; and
Point-biserial correlation coefficients (Howell, 1992) between socio-economic status and outcome measures of academic achievement, reading scale scores, mathematics scale scores, and attendance were statistically significant. Thus, covariate analysis was deemed necessary. A series of one-way analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was performed to compare the two groups on the basis of the five outcome measures, adjusted by socio-economic status (Stevens, 2009)
Qualitative
Utilizing the tenets of interpretivism, focus group transcripts were coded and contentanalyzed.
According to Creswell and Plano Clark (2011), the following steps were performed in analyzing the transcripts: 1) the audio-recorded interview were scribed and coded; 2) the codes were grouped into categories and the researcher worked the categories into themes; and 3) the themes were analyzed and excerpts from the interview were used to support the themes.
In accordance with the Sequential Explanatory Model, quantitative and qualitative results were synthesized to draw conclusions, discuss the findings, and propose practical and theoretical implications. 37
CHAPTER IV
Results
The primary purpose of the ex post facto causal-comparative study was to examine the impact of extracurricular athletic activities on academic achievement, disciplinary referrals, and school attendance among Hispanic female 11th grade students in an urban school district in South
Texas. The secondary purpose of the study was to document the perspectives of Hispanic female
11th grade students regarding the pros and cons of participating in extracurricular athletic activities. The researcher had hypothesized that participation in extracurricular athletic activities would have a positive impact of academic life of the students. The study was guided by the following questions:
1. To what extent does participation in extracurricular athletic activities impact academic achievement?
2. To what extent does participation in extracurricular athletic activities impact school attendance?
3. To what extent does participation in extracurricular athletic activities impact disciplinary referrals?
4. What are the perspectives of Hispanic female students regarding the impact of participating in extracurricular athletic activities on academic life?
Quantitative and qualitative data were collected and analyzed to answer the research questions. The urban school district in South Texas provided the researcher with the quantitative data, which were coded, entered into the computer, and analyzed by the use of the Statistical
Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS). The researcher collected the qualitative data, using
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focus groups from a high school in the South Texas school district, which were audio-taped, transcribed, and content analyzed.
Quantitative Results
A Profile of Subjects
The school district provided the researcher with data on socio-economic status and age of
788 Hispanic female 11th grade students. One group of students participated in extracurricular athletic activities, the characteristic-present group (n = 544), and the other group did not participate in extracurricular athletic activities, the comparison group (n = 244). The students in both groups ranged in age from 16 to 19, with the characteristic-present group (M = 16.68, SD =
.57) and the comparison group (M = 16.72, SD = .57). The homogeneity of variances assumption was met, Levene’s F = .36, p = .55; group differences on the basis of age were not statistically significant, t(786) = .88, p = .38. The majority of the students in both groups were economically disadvantaged; the group differences were statistically significant, χ²(1, N = 788) =
14.42, p < .01. Results are summarized in Table 1.
Table 1
A Profile of Subjects
Demographic characteristic
Characteristic-Present Group
(n=544)
F %
Comparison Group
(n=244)
F %
Socio-Economic Status ª
Disadvantaged
Not disadvantaged
Age ᵇ 333 211 M 16.68
61.20
38.80 SD .57 184
60
M 16.72
75.40
24.60
SD
.57
ª χ²(1, N = 788) = 14.42, p < .01
ᵇ t(786) = .88, p = .38
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Outcome Measures
There were five outcome measures. Academic achievement, as measured by GPA, could theoretically range from 0 to 100. The TAKS reading and mathematics scale scores could theoretically range from 1344 to 3143 and 1317 to 2852, respectively, and for both, 2100 was a minimum passing score. Attendance could theoretically range from 0 to 180 days. There was no theoretical range for the number of disciplinary referrals. The 788 students were from five high schools in an urban school district in South Texas. Descriptive statistics for the outcome measures are summarized in Tables 2 – 6.
Table 2
Means and Standard Deviations by High School for Academic Achievement
High School
Characteristic-Present Group
(n=544)
M* SD
Comparison Group
(n=244)
M* SD
A
B
C
D
E
Total 83.92 76.26 76.11 80.59 77.87 79.15
15.07
24.60
27.18
20.48 25.55
22.67
75.80
77.20
74.98
69.86
74.02
73.96
21.14
18.90
22.42
27.95
26.66
24.06
* Theoretical range: 0 - 100
40
Table 3
Means and Standard Deviations by High School for TAKS Reading Scale Score
High School
Characteristic-Present Group
(n=538)
M* SD
Comparison Group
(n=235)
M* SD
A
B
C
D
E
Total 2347.59 2311.04 2270.77 2305.43 2315.48 2314.12
139.08
152.99
108.93
148.34 200.04
158.04
2265.46
2203.00
2220.54
2228.95
2256.95
2238.40
172.22
274.96
206.25
164.97
185.28
196.93
* Theoretical range: 1344 - 3143
Table 4
Means and Standard Deviations by High School for TAKS Mathematics Scale Score
High School
Characteristic-Present Group
(n=538)
M* SD
Comparison Group
(n=238)
M* SD
A
B
C
D
E
Total 2287.02 2258.49 2233.27 2249.32 2254.81 2258.91
179.88
161.33
180.16
168.35 197.26
177.09
2166.61
2132.61
2193.08
2154.97
2127.82
2153.13
174.87
282.58
118.57
165.81
256.81
206.61
* Theoretical range: 1317 - 2852
Table 5
Means and Standard Deviations by High School for Disciplinary Referrals
High School
Characteristic-Present Group
(n=544)
M SD
Comparison Group
(n=244)
M SD
A
B
C
D
E
Total .22 .20 .45 .07 .30 .22
.57
.47 1.03
.31
.65
.59
.32
.39
.27
.09
.28
.25
.86 1.16
.53
.33
.66
.75
41
Table 6
Means and Standard Deviations by High School for Attendance
High School
Characteristic-Present Group
(n=544)
M* SD
Comparison Group
(n=244)
M* SD
A
B
C
D
E
Total 171.83 171.29 169.75 168.72 168.83 170.13
6.21
8.39
8.54
11.05 13.82
10.15
166.03
169.05
162.73
164.47
168.30
166.18
16.95
11.41
16.12
15.14
8.29
14.20
* Theoretical range: 0 – 180 days
A series of 2-way factorial analysis of variance showed that the interaction effect of high school (1, 5) and participation in extracurricular athletic activities (1, 2) on outcome measures was not statistically significant (Table 7). Thus, the data from the five high schools were merged. Table 7
High School by Extracurricular Athletic Activities Interaction Effect
Outcome Measure df Between df Error F p
Academic Achievement
TAKS Reading Scale Score
TAKS Mathematics Scale Score
Disciplinary Referrals
Attendance
4 4 4 4 4
778
763
766
778 778
1.51
.46
.83
1.09
1.48
.20
.76
.51
.36
.21
Group Comparisons
Female Hispanic 11th grade students who participated in extracurricular athletic activities were compared to female Hispanic 11th grade students who did not participate in athletic activities on the basis of academic achievement, as measured by GPA. The homogeneity of
42
variance assumption was met, Levene’s F = 1.65, p = .20. The t-test for independent sample showed that the 11th graders who had participated in extracurricular athletic activities (M =
79.15, SD = 22.67) outperformed the 11th graders who had not participated in extracurricular athletic activities (M = 73.96, SD = 24.06) and the difference was statistically significant, t(786)
= 2.92, p < .01. The mean difference effect size was .21. Results are summarized in Table 8.
Table 8
Group Comparison on Academic Achievement (GPA)a
Outcome Measure
Characteristic-Present
Group (n=544) M SD Comparison Group (n=244)

M SD t ES
Academic Achievement 79.15 22.67 73.96 24.06 2.92* .21 a Theoretical range: 0 - 100
ES = Effect Size, .2 = small, .5 = medium, >.8 = large
*p < .01
On the basis of TAKS reading scale scores, Female Hispanic 11th grade students who participated in extracurricular athletic activities were compared to female Hispanic 11th grade students who did not participate in athletic activities. The homogeneity of variance assumption was met, Levene’s F = .26, p = .61. The t-test for independent sample showed that the 11th graders who had participated in extracurricular athletic activities (M = 2314.12, SD = 158.04) surpassed the 11th graders who had not participated in extracurricular athletic activities (M =
2238.40, SD = 196.93) and the difference was statistically significant, t(771) = 5.67, p < .01. The mean difference effect size was .41. Results are summarized in Table 9.
43
Table 9
Group Comparison on TAKS Reading Scale Scorea
Outcome Measure
Characteristic-Present
Group (n=538) M SD Comparison Group (n=235)

M SD t ES
TAKS Reading Scale
Score 2314.12 158.04

2238.40

196.93 5.67* .41 a Theoretical range: 1344 - 3143
ES = Effect Size, .2 = small, .5 = medium, >.8 = large
*p < .01
Female Hispanic 11th grade students who participated in extracurricular athletic activities were compared to female Hispanic 11th grade students who did not participate in athletic activities on the basis of TAKS mathematics scale scores. The homogeneity of variance assumption was met, Levene’s F = .03, p = .87. The t-test for independent sample showed that the 11th graders who had participated in extracurricular athletic activities (M = 2258.91, SD =
177.09) surpassed the 11th graders who had not participated in extracurricular athletic activities
(M = 2153.13, SD = 206.61) and the difference was statistically significant, t(774) = 7.28, p <
.01. The mean difference effect size was .52. Results are summarized in Table 10.
Table 10
Group Comparison on TAKS Mathematics Scale Scorea
Outcome Measure
Characteristic-Present
Group (n=538) M SD Comparison Group (n=238)

M SD t ES
TAKS Mathematics Scale
Score
2258.91 177.09 2153.13 206.61 7.28* .52 a Theoretical range: 1317 - 2852
ES = Effect Size, .2 = small, .5 = medium, >.8 = large
*p < .01
44
The comparison was made between Female Hispanic 11th grade students who participated in extracurricular athletic activities to female Hispanic 11th grade students who did not participate in athletic activities on the basis of disciplinary referrals. The homogeneity of variance assumption was met, Levene’s F = 1.47, p = .23. The t-test for independent sample showed that the difference between 11th graders who had participated in extracurricular athletic activities (M = .22, SD = .59) and those who had not participated in extracurricular athletic activities (M = .25, SD = .75) was not statistically significant, t(786) = .68, p = .50. The mean difference effect size was .05. Results are summarized in Table 11.
Table 11
Group Comparison on Disciplinary Referrals
Outcome Measure
Characteristic-Present
Group (n=544) M SD Comparison Group (n=244)

M SD t ES
Disciplinary Referrals .22 .59 .25 .75 .68 .05
ES = Effect Size, .2 = small, .5 = medium, >.8 = large
Female Hispanic 11th grade students who participated in extracurricular athletic activities were compared to female Hispanic 11th grade students who did not participate in athletic activities on the basis of attendance. The homogeneity of variance assumption was not met,
Levene’s F = 19.83, p < .01. Welch approximate t, which is recommended when the homogeneity of variances assumption is violated, showed that the 11th graders who had participated in extracurricular athletic activities (M = 170.13, SD = 10.15) surpassed the 11th graders who had not participated in extracurricular athletic activities (M = 166.18, SD = 14.20) and the difference was statistically significant, t(358.63) = 3.92, p < .01. The mean difference effect size was .41. Results are summarized in Table 12.
45
Table 12
Group Comparison on Attendancea
Outcome Measure
Characteristic-Present
Group (n=544) M SD Comparison Group (n=244)

M SD t ES
Attendance 170.13 10.15 166.18 14.20 3.92* .41 a Theoretical range: 0 – 180 days
ES = Effect Size, .2 = small, .5 = medium, >.8 = large
*p < .01
Covariate Analysis
As reported in the profile of subjects, the group differences on the basis of socioeconomic status were statistically significant. Furthermore, as can be seen in Table 13, simple correlations between socio-economic status and outcome measures of academic achievement, reading scale scores, mathematics scale scores, and attendance, as computed by point-biserial correlation coefficient, were statistically significant.
Table 13
Point-Biserial Correlation between Socio-economic status and Outcome Measures
Outcome Measure r* p
Academic Achievement
TAKS Reading Scale Score
TAKS Mathematics Scale Score
Disciplinary Referrals
Attendance
-.14 -.23 -.21 .07 -.20