Influences that Affect Women of Color in STEM Disciplines

Past research studies assessed the influences that hindered underrepresented students of color to reach educational achievement in the STEM fields (Gordon & Bridglall, 2004; Maltese & Tai, 2011; Washington, 2011; Whalen & Shelley, 2010). The literature review indicated significant obstacles facing this population. Obstacles included mediocre academic preparation and encouragement targeted at underrepresented students of color from both the secondary school and collegiate institution levels. In order for the U.S. to compete globally, past research studies proved additional efforts must be made to help close the diversity and gender gap within the STEM fields.
National STEM Enrollment and Retention Trends
In the U.S., the total number of bachelor’s degrees awarded annually had nearly tripled over the past 40 years, but awarded STEM degrees had not. The U.S. continued to award fewer STEM degrees each year compared to other countries worldwide (Maltese & Tai, 2011). High school students with impressive grade point averages (GPA), no matter their race or gender should be encouraged to pursue a STEM major (Thompson & Bolin, 2011). Studies proved high school coursework played a significant role in a student’s decision to pursue a STEM major while in college. The completion of high school courses such as biology, chemistry, physics, calculus, and trigonometry showed a positive correlation with students deciding to major in a STEM field (Maltese & Tai, 2011). An important attribute to increase enrollment of women of color in STEM disciplines is to have the presence of women that work in STEM in the community and institution that serve as role models. Despite the importance of pre-college characteristics and experiences, however, research also suggests that institutional structures, policies, and practices contribute to the attainment of women and minorities in STEM fields (Perna, Lundy-Wagner, Drezner, Gasman, Yoon, Bose, & Gary, 2009).
Significant variables associated with attaining a STEM degree included the student’s self-concept, self-confidence, commitment, and the influence of their high school peers (Nicholls, Wolfe, Besterfield-Sacre, Shuman, & Larpkiattaworn, 2007). The authors also identified strong mathematical skills, higher academic performance, and increased personal motivations as positives for students’ pursuing a STEM degree (Nicholls et al., 2007). Thompson and Bolin (2009) found a significant correlation between high school rank and combined SAT scores, which were also associated with the retention of STEM majors in college. However, research showed “Enrollment of students in STEM has declined from the freshman year to the senior, from 28.7% to 17.4%, a 40% relative decline” (Whalen & Shelley, 2010, p. 45). This significant decline was quite disappointing as more countries around the world outpaced the U.S with a higher number of STEM graduates.
Gender Role in STEM Programs
Caucasian and Asian males represented the majority of students graduating from STEM programs. The NSF revealed female and minority students were significantly behind compared to their majority male and race counterparts in attaining STEM degrees (Nicholls et al., 2007). Gender and ethnicity were identified as being associated with the decision whether students chose to continue or not continue their pursuit of a STEM degree (Nicholls et al., 2007). Female African-American, Native American, and Hispanic/Latino students suffered the greatest drop in STEM major representation. Male students in these racial/ethnic groups were determined as the second largest drop in STEM major representation (Nicholls et al., 2007).

Persisting in STEM Majors The experiences students had in their STEM classes played a considerable role in why students chose to remain or leave a STEM program (Maltese & Tai, 2011). Many academically capable students left STEM programs because of the teaching methods that focused on “weeding-out” less determined students (Nicholls et al., 2007). The main difference between students that continued in the STEM program and those that dropped out was their attitudes and determination they experienced during the “weeding out” process (Nicholls et al., 2007). STEM students who possessed strong science academic abilities and found the courses challenging likely continued their studies and enrolled in advanced upper-level STEM coursework (Maltese & Tai, 2011).
Students were more likely to complete a STEM degree if they possessed science-based career ambitions; had strong achievement in mathematics and science; a higher number of peers majoring in STEM fields; or were enrolled in courses with student-oriented faculty (Maltese & Tai, 2011). Research findings also indicated that STEM students preferred hands-on activities, group work, discussion, and very few lecture based courses. “Group work and active learning are pedagogical strategies that have positive impacts on attitudes toward science for all students, but especially females and ethnic minority students” (Maltese & Tai, 2011, p. 882). Students who began taking STEM classes during their freshman year, and those that achieved higher grades in STEM courses were more likely to complete a STEM degree (Maltese & Tai, 2011).
Diversity and Retention in STEM Programs
As researchers analyzed the challenges of recruiting and retaining STEM students, the findings provided evidence of a significant lack of minority students in higher education STEM programs and subsequently STEM fields (National Science Board, 2012). According to the NSF, Caucasian students dominated the number of bachelor’s degrees in science and engineering with 71.8 percent. Whereas the underrepresented minority STEM populations were comprised of 16.9 percent Asians and 3.9 percent for both Hispanics and African-Americans (National Science Board, 2012).
Research suggested an approach to undertake the diversity gaps within the STEM fields by developing Pre-STEM programs targeted at underrepresented high school students (Lam, Srivatsan, Doverspike, Vesalo, & Mawasha, 2005). The goals of these programs are:
(1) to reinforce the self-confidence of underrepresented high school students; (2) to enhance their problem-solving skills by using hands-on learning; (3) to increase the overall awareness of the student and viable career options in STEM; (4) to provide diagnostic testing for high school students in mathematics to determine their deficiencies prior to their enrollment in college; and (5) to provide students with opportunities to use computers and become familiar with the usage of word processing, spreadsheets, math software packages, and the internet (Lam et al., 2005, p. 14).
The goals of the Pre-STEM programs targeted the greatest challenges facing underrepresented minority populations pursuing a degree in the STEM fields.
A Pre-STEM study was conducted which assessed a Pre-Engineering program at the University of Akron (Lam et al., 2005). The participants were ninth through twelfth grade underrepresented, low income, and/or first-generation college high school students (Lam et al., 2005). The purpose of this longitudinal study was to analyze ten years of data which included the participants’ surveys, GPA, and test scores from the SAT or ACT. The authors of the study concluded the Pre-STEM program was a step in the right direction by introducing the STEM fields to students while in high school. Based on the data results, the study provided information about different recruitment and retention programs that would help attract underrepresented students to pursue a STEM degree in college (Lam et al., 2005).
Previous research also revealed another approach in closing the diversity gap was developing undergraduate STEM programs on college campuses (Gordan & Bridglall, 2004). The renowned Meyerhoff Scholars Program at the University of Maryland investigated the variables needed to increase ethnic-minority leadership in STEM programs (Gordon & Bridglall, 2004). The Meyerhoff Scholars Program objectives included: recording and assessing components of ideal programs; understanding the circumstances and methods of such programs; and evaluating the efforts of exemplary programs (Gordan & Bridglall, 2004). The data was collected from many years of assessment including both surveys and qualitative methods. Some data results explained strategies that helped foster student success which included: creating a group for underrepresented like-minded minority students; requiring a pre-freshman Summer Bridge program; providing institutional academic support and skill development; and implementing support groups at different levels for students’ both academically and socially (Gordan & Bridglall, 2004).
Theoretical Framework
The study’s theoretical framework is based on Wade Boykin’s Triple Quandary Theory. It states African-Americans engage in three empirical realms including the mainstream experience, minority experience, and the black cultural experience (Boykin, 1986). Each realm of the triple quandary theory has its own set of values, beliefs, and behavioral patterns. The socialization messages and adopted values from the triple quandary theory stem from the dominant white American culture (mainstream), intergenerational communication of African traditions known as Afro-Americans (black cultural), and from the demands of oppression (minority) (Boykin, 1986). The mainstream, minority, and black experience realms of negotiation form the triple quandary for Afro-Americans.
There are significant opportunities within the triple quandary for diversity expression. The academic dilemma facing Afro-Americans is based on the relationships of their cognitive, motivational, and belief considerations (Boykin, 1986). Boykin (1986) stated:
In a culturally homogeneous population, what children actually do in an academic setting is based on what they can do and will do, and on what they understand that they should do. White middle-class children participate in a relatively homogeneous cultural experience, they are likely to do what they can, will, and should do. Moreover, what the children themselves believe they should do is likely to be consistent with what their teachers believe there is congruence of value and belief. Separating questions of will and should from can is hardly necessary in such a context. In the case of Afro-American children, however, these distinctions become important (p. 76-77).
The experiential complexity of the Afro-American (black culture) experience significant uncertainty over the values and behaviors suitable to the academic environment (Boykin, 1986). The triple quandary theory emphasizes the importance of integrating diversity into the social community including the attainment of academic settings (Boykin, 1986). Achieving such goals is difficult in regard to the existing hegemony and ideology. “Only by altering institutions and values to make them consistent with cultural democratic principles can make such choices realistically possible” (Boykin, 1986, p. 88). The opportunity to establish diverse social order that maximizes economic, social, and educational equality is the goal of the triple quandary theory (Boykin, 1986). The research study is based on the triple quandary theory to help assess underrepresented students’ success in higher education STEM programs. As previously discussed, African-Americans engage in three empirical realms including the mainstream, minority, and the black cultural experience according to the triple quandary theory (Boykin, 1986). The triple quandary theory discusses the importance of achieving race equality in the community as well as the academic environment (Boykin, 1986). The focus of this study is determining ways to increase the number of underrepresented students in higher education STEM programs. The research study shares the same focus and objectives as the triple quandary theory in terms of increasing diversity through different realms specifically education. Most higher education STEM programs are primarily composed of Caucasian males as the overall majority. As the demand for STEM graduates increases each year, providing underrepresented diverse students the proper guidance and encouragement to pursue those fields and establish educational equality in accordance to the triple quandary theory.
Summary
Previous research studies proved economic stability is dependent on the strength of the STEM fields in America. In order to increase STEM student interest, immediate attention is needed to target the underrepresented population and work towards closing the diversity gap. It is essential to begin the recruitment process as early as high school and cultivate the student’s interest, while motivating them to pursue a degree in the STEM field. Additional research targeted at diversity and STEM retention is needed to help increase the number of STEM degrees awarded to underrepresented minority students. In order to increase national economic growth and compete globally, it is essential that additional efforts be made to help close the diversity gap within the STEM fields.
References
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