There are many different theories of human memory, cognition, and thinking the most researched and articulated theory is the Information Processing explanations (Ashcraft & Radvansky, 2010; Bruning, Schraw & Norby, 2011; Sternberg & Sternberg, 2012) This essay will introduce Information Processing Theories and briefly explain the key concepts and explore the importance of these theories in relation to teaching in the classroom. The significance of these theories in relation to understanding childrens learning and development will be discussed and we will touch on how these theories can be beneficial in developing an educational pedagogy. The strengths and limitations will be identified and reviewed and the key concepts will be critically reflected apon. We as humans process information with remarkable proficiency and we accomplish problematic tasks such and critical thinking, faster and more accurately than some very sophisticated machines. (Halpern, 2003; Kuhn, 1999) Theorists have developed a systematic model of memory, according to Woolfolk & Margetts (p.250) the most common and universally recognised by research is information processing theory, this is a well-documented analysis for examining learning and memory. The information processing theory as defined as ‘The human mind’s activity of taking in, storing, and using information’. (Woolfolk A &Margetts K p.205) Information processing theory is a proposed system of how we: perceive, encode, store and retrieve data. Encoding is the process of forming memories and receiving information, Storage is the continuing storage of received information this is significantly more effective when linked to prior experience and retrieve data is being able to bring the information to working memory on call. To successfully teach, students must encode into their long-term memory. The ability to Encode into long term memory will differ between students depending on a variety of different environmental and social factors. Information processing effectiveness is increased when efficient organizational strategies come into place. (Anderson, RA 2011)

Atkinson and Shiffren elaborated on a cognitive memory system known as the information-processing model (Matlin, 1983) This Information processing theory involves three key components, which are sensory memory, working memory, and long-term memory. Woolfolk and Margetts defy Sensory memory as the ‘system that holds sensory information very briefly’ sensory memory is the initial process of transforming stimuli such as sights, smells and sounds (visual, auditory, touch) into information that can be stored so we can make sense of them. These stimuli may only last for brief periods of time but the brain stores this new brief information in the sensory register so that this initial process can take place (bruning, Schraw & Norby, 2011; Driscoll, 2005). The amount of data stored at any given time is limited to 5-7 distinct elements (i.e letters of the alphabet, pictures or human faces) If a child observed ten letters simultaneously for one second, the child would most likely only remember up to five - seven of those individual letters. The main function of sensory memory is to filter through all the stimuli we receive and process only what is most relevant to our current task at hand. For example, when driving a car we wncounter copious amouns of visual and auditory stimuli. To ensure our safey, only the information that is relevant to safe driving. Processing in sensory memory usually happens far too quickly for people to knowingly control sensory processing is fast and unconscious. Information that familiar or relevant to the task at hand can be automatically processed.

WORKING MEMORY
After stimuli enter sensory memory, they are either forwarded to working memory or deleted from the system. Working memory is a term that is used to refer to a multi-component temporary memory system in which information is assigned meaning, linked to other information, and essential mental operations such as inferences are performed. A number of different models of working memory have been proposed (Shah & Miyake, 1999). However, the three-component model developed by Baddeley (1998, 2001) is the most common, and will be discussed shortly. Figure 1ILLUSTRATION BY GGS INFORMATION SERVICES. CENGAGE LEARNING, GALE.
Several useful terms have been developed to describe efficient cognitive processing in working memory. One term is limited attentional resources, which refers to the highly limited nature of information processing (Anderson, 2000; Neath, 1998). All individuals experience severe limitations in how much mental activity they can engage in due to limited cognitive resources (Kane & Engle, 2002). Although humans differ with respect to available cognitive resources, all learners experience severe limitations regardless of their skill and ability level. Often, differences between one learner and another are not due to the amount of resources, but how efficiently those resources are used.
Another key term is automaticity, which refers to being able to perform a task very quickly and efficiently due to repeated practice (Stanovich, 2003). Automated activities usually require few cognitive resources; thus, even a complex skill such as driving a car at 75 miles per hour can seem effortless. Effective information processing in sensory memory requires a high degree of automaticity with regard to recognition of familiar stimuli such as spoken or printed words, faces, and sounds.
A third key term is selective processing, which refers to the act of intentionally focusing one's limited cognitive resources on stimuli that are most relevant to the task at hand. For example, when driving in snow, one might allocate more of one's limited cognitive resources to watching the center line in the highway than one would allocate on a clear summer day. In contrast, on an extremely windy day, one would pay little attention to the whereabouts of the center line but pay special attention to any flying debris that could cause an accident. In essence, selective processing enables learners to be optimally efficient by putting all of their cognitive eggs in one basket. It is no coincidence that highly effective learners succeed because they identify what is most important to learn and allocate limited attention to relevant information.
Baddeley's 2001 model of working memory consists of three components, the executive control system, articulatory loop, and visual-spatial sketch pad. The role of the executive control system is to select incoming information, determine how to best process that information, construct meaning through organization and inferences, and subsequently transfer the processed information to long-term memory or choose to delete that information from the memory system altogether (e.g., a telephone number that is no longer needed). Most models of working memory assume that the central executive is the place where humans “make conscious meaning” of the information they process (Shah & Miyake, 1999). The role of the articulatory loop is to maintain and further process verbal information. The role of the visual-spatial sketch pad is analogous to the articulatory loop in that it maintains and further processes non-verbal and visual information. Information is lost quickly from working memory (i.e., 5 to 15 seconds) unless some type of mental rehearsal occurs. Barring rehearsal (e.g., repeating a telephone number), information is either forwarded to long-term memory or is deleted from the system.
Baddeley's model makes several critical assumptions about the processing of information in working memory. One is that each of the three subsystems possesses its own Table 1ILLUSTRATION BY GGS INFORMATION SERVICES. CENGAGE LEARNING, GALE. pool of limited cognitive resources. This means that, under normal information processing circumstances, each subsystem performs work without taxing the other subsystems. A second assumption is that the executive control system regulates the articulatory loop and visual-spatial sketch pad.
LONG-TERM MEMORY
Unlike sensory and working memory, long-term memory is not constrained by capacity or duration of attention limitations. The role of long-term memory is to provide a seemingly unlimited repository for all the facts and knowledge in memory. Most researchers believe that long-term memory is capable of holding millions of pieces of information for very long periods of time (Anderson, 2000). A great deal of research has gone into identifying two key aspects of long-term memory: (a) what types of information are represented, and (b) how information is organized. These two questions are addressed in the next section of this entry. For present purposes, there is universal agreement that qualitatively different types of information exist in long-term memory and that information must be organized, and therefore quickly accessible, to be of practical use to learners.
Figure 1 shows that working memory and long-term memory are connected by encoding andretrieval processes. Encoding refers to a large number of strategies that move information from temporary store in working memory into long-term memory. Examples include organization, inference, and elaboration strategies, which will be discussed later. Retrieval refers to processes that enable individuals to search memory and access information for active processing in working memory. Both encoding and retrieval greatly facilitate learning when information in long-term memory is organized for easy access.
A comparison of the three components of the IPM indicates that both sensory and working memory are relatively short term in nature (see Table 1). Their main roles are to screen incoming information, assign meaning, and relate individual units of information to other units. In contrast, the main role of long-term memory is to serve as a highly organized permanent storage system. Sensory and working memory process few pieces of information within a short time frame. Automaticity of processing and selective allocation of limited cognitive resources greatly increases the efficiency of information processing. Long-term memory is assumed to be more or less permanent and unlimited in terms of capacity. The main processing constraint on long-term memory is the individual's ability to quickly encode and retrieve information using an efficient organizational system.
The information processing model provides a conceptual model which explains the different functions and constraints on human memory. The IPM also has had a major impact on instructional theory and practice. Sweller and Chandler's 1994 work developed cognitive load theory to explain how different instructional and learner constraints affect optimal information processing. The crux of their argument is that each task imposes some degree of cognitive load, which must be met either by available cognitive resources or learner-based strategies such as selective attention and automaticity. Reducing cognitive load enables individuals to learn with less overall mental effort. Cognitive load theory has been especially helpful in terms of planning instruction and developing learning materials. Others researchers such as Mayer and Moreno (2003) have developed frameworks to increase learning by systematically reducing cognitive load through better design of learning materials and more strategic use of limited resources by students.
In summary, the information processing model postulates a three-component model of information processing. The IPM is consistent with empirical findings and provides an excellent framework for understanding principles of effective learning, which are considered later in this entry. Sensory and working memory are limited with respect to capacity and duration, whereas long-term memory is more or less unlimited. Information processing efficiency is increased due to automaticity and selectivity. Encoding and retrieval of information in long-term memory is increased due to efficient organizational strategies.

DEVELOPMENTAL ISSUES
Some information processing theorists suggest that children differ from adults primarily because they have had less experience. These theorists believe that, with proper training or education, children can learn to succeed at various cognitive tasks. Thus, exposure to the environment affects cognitive development. Other theorists believe that children's natural maturation processes influence the complexity of their thinking. Therefore, as children grow older and naturally mature, they are able to perform cognitive tasks of increasing difficulty and complexity. Information processing theorists assume that development involves qualitative and quantitative changes. Examples of these changes have been seen in children's performance in several domains. These include perception, memory, verbal comprehension, mathematical skills, problem solving, and reasoning.
With regard to perception, studies have shown that young children have trouble distinguishing between appearance and reality. That is, when asked to describe something, young children will describe the way it appears to them, rather than what is really in front of them. Memory has been found to be better in older children than in younger children. When learning new material, young children are likely to use very simple strategies, while older children employ more elaborative strategies to aid in memorizing information.
Verbal comprehension is the ability to comprehend words, sentences, paragraphs, and other forms of spoken information. Children's verbal comprehension appears to increase with age. The ability of children to generate useful strategies that improve verbal comprehension also increases with age.
These findings indicate that, as humans get older, there is a trend for us to develop more sophisticated ways of acquiring, processing, and retaining information. Thus, information processing skills become more developed with age. This aspect of change implies that, when teaching children new things, it is important to consider where they are in the developmental process and to adjust teaching techniques so that they are compatible with children's information processing capabilities.
INFORMATION PROCESSING RESEARCH METHODS
In the late 1980s, David Klahr characterized information processing research as falling along a continuum ranging from "soft-core" to "hard-core" approaches. Soft-core research involves describing a child's processing of information as a flow diagram or in some way that is not as complex or formal as a computer program. Hard-core approaches, on the other end of the spectrum, involve writing computer programs that imitate a child's output as that child processes information. A program that successfully matches the child's output is considered to be a theory of how the child's mind operates.
The first computer simulation program used to understand information processing was developed by Allen Newell and Herbert Simon in the late 1960s and early 1970s. This program, originally called the Logic Theorist and later termed the General Problem Solver, was essentially a theory of human problem solving stated in the form of a simulation program. This theory was tested by comparing the results of the computer simulation with human behavior in a given task.
The information processing approach has gained considerable popularity in recent years. Nevertheless, weaknesses in this approach have been noted. A primary weakness is that there is no guarantee that flow diagrams or computer programs that predict behavior actually represent the way human cognitive processes really work. There may be reason to believe that the differences between computers and the human mind far outweigh the similarities. Furthermore, because information processing studies are conducted in highly controlled laboratory settings, such findings may be unequal to results that would result from studying children in their natural environments. Bibliography:
Bransford, J. (1979). Human cognition: Learning, understanding and remembering. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
Gagne, E.,Yekovich, C., & Yekovich, F. (1993). The cognitive psychology of school learning. New York: HarperCollins.
Huitt, W. (2003). The information processing approach. Retrieved from http://www.edpsycinteractive.org/topics/cognition/infoproc.html
Kearsley, G. (1994). Information processing theory: G. Miller. Retrieved from http://www.instructionaldesign.org/theories/information-processing.html
McShane, J. (1991). Cognitive development: An information-processing approach. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell.
Sternberg, R. J. (1998). In search of the human mind. Orlando, FL: Harcourt Brace.
Stever, F. B. (1994). The psychological development of children. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole.
Wade, C., & Tavris, C. (1990). Psychology. New York: HarperCollins.

Sensory memory (STSS). Sensory memory is affiliated with the transduction of energy (change from one energy from to another). The environment makes available a variety of sources of information (light, sound, smell, heat, cold, etc.), but the brain only understands electrical energy. The body has special sensory receptor cells that transduce (change from one form of energy to another) this external energy to something the brain can understand. In the process of transduction, a memory is created. This memory is very short (less than 1/2 second for vision; about 3 seconds for hearing).
It is absolutely critical that the learner attend to the information at this initial stage in order to transfer it to the next one. There are two major concepts for getting information into STM:
First, individuals are more likely to pay attention to a stimulus if it has an interesting feature. We are more likely to get an orienting response if this is present.
Second, individuals are more likely to pay attention if the stimulus activates a known pattern. To the extent we have students call to mind relevant prior learning before we begin our presentations, we can take advantage of this principle.
Short-term memory (STM). Short-term memory is also called working memory and relates to what we are thinking about at any given moment in time. In Freudian terms, this is conscious memory. It is created by our paying attention to an external stimulus, an internal thought, or both. It will initially last somewhere around 15 to 20 seconds unless it is repeated (called maintenance rehearsal) at which point it may be available for up to 20 minutes. The hypothalamus is a brain structure thought to be involved in this shallow processing of information. The frontal lobes of the cerebral cortex is the structure associated with working memory. For example, you are processing the words you read on the screen in your frontal lobes. However, if I ask, "What is your telephone number?" your brain immediately calls that from long-term memory and replaces what was previously there.
Another major limit on information processing in STM is in terms of the number of units that can be processed an any one time. Miller (1956) gave the number as 7 + 2, but more recent research suggests the number may be more like 5 + 2 for most things we are trying to remember. Because of the variability in how much individuals can work with (for some it may be three, for others seven) it is necessary to point out important information. If some students can only process three units of information at a time, let us make certain it is the most important three.
There are two major concepts for retaining information in STM: organization and repetition. There are four major types of organization that are most often used in instructional design:
• Component (part/whole)--classification by category or concept (e.g., the components of the teaching/learning model);
• Sequential -- chronological; cause/effect; building to climax (e.g., baking a cake, reporting on a research study);
• Relevance -- central unifying idea or criteria (e.g., most important principles of learning for boys and girls, appropriate management strategies for middle school and high school students);
• Transitional (connective) -- relational words or phrases used to indicate qualitative change over time (e.g., stages in Piaget's theory of cognitive development or Erikson's stages of socioemotional development)
A related issue to organization is the concept of chunking or grouping pieces of data into units. For example, the letters "b d e" constitute three units of information while the word "bed" represents one unit even though it is composed of the same number of letters. Chunking is a major technique for getting and keeping information in short-term memory; it is also a type of elaboration that will help get information into long-term memory.
Repetition or rote rehearsal is a technique we all use to try to "learn" something. However, in order to be effective this must be done after forgetting begins. Researchers advise that the learner should not repeat immediately the content (or skill), but wait a few minutes and then repeat. For the most part, simply memorizing something does not lead to learning (i.e., relatively permanent change). We all have anecdotal evidence that we can remember something we memorized (a poem for example), but just think about all the material we tried to learn this way and the little we are able to remember after six months or a year.
Long-term memory (LTM). Long-term memory is also called preconscious and unconscious memory in Freudian terms. Preconscious means that the information is relatively easily recalled (although it may take several minutes or even hours) while unconscious refers to data that is not available during normal consciousness. It is preconscious memory that is the focus of cognitive psychology as it relates to long-term memory. The levels-of-processing theory, however, has provided some research that attests to the fact that we "know" more than we can easily recall. The two processes most likely to move information into long-term memory are elaboration and distributed practice (referred to as periodic review in the direct instruction model).
There are several examples of elaboration that are commonly used in the teaching/learning process:
• imaging -- creating a mental picture;
• method of loci (locations)--ideas or things to be remembered are connected to objects located in a familiar location;
• pegword method (number, rhyming schemes)--ideas or things to be remembered are connected to specific words (e.g., one-bun, two-shoe, three-tree, etc.)
• Rhyming (songs, phrases)--information to be remembered is arranged in a rhyme (e.g., 30 days hath September, April, June, and November, etc.)
• Initial letter--the first letter of each word in a list is used to make a sentence (the sillier, the better).
Organization (types) of knowledge
As information is stored in long-term memory, it is organized using one or more structures: declarative, procedural, and/or imagery.
Declarative Memory (generally refers to information we can talk about)
• Semantic Memory-- facts and generalized information (concepts, principles, rules; problem-solving strategies; learning strategies) o Schema / Schemata -- networks of connected ideas or relationships; data structures or procedures for organizing the parts of a specific experience into a meaningful system (like a standard or stereotype) o Proposition -- interconnected set of concepts and relationships; if/then statements (smallest unit of information that can be judged true or false) o Script -- "declarative knowledge structure that captures general information about a routine series of events or a recurrent type of social event, such as eating in a restaurant or visiting the doctor" (Stillings et al., 1987) o Frame -- complex organization including concepts and visualizations that provide a reference within which stimuli and actions are judged (also called "Frame of Reference") o Scheme -- an organization of concepts, principles, rules, etc. that define a perspective and presents specific action patterns to follow o Program -- set of rules that define what to do in a particular situation o Paradigm -- the basic way of perceiving, thinking, valuing, and doing associated with a particular vision of reality (Harman, 1970) o Model -- a set of propositions or equations describing in simplified form some aspects of our experience. Every model is based upon a theory or paradigm, but the theory or paradigm may not be stated in concise form. (Umpleby in Principia Cybernetica Web, no date)
• Episodic Memory-- personal experience (information in stories and analogies)
Procedural Memory-- how to (driving a car, riding a bike)
Imagery -- pictures
Concept formation One of the most important issues in cognitive psychology is the development or formation of concepts. A concept is the set of rules used to define the categories by which we group similar events, ideas or objects. There are several principles that lend themselves to concept development:
• name and define concept to be learned (advance organizer)
a. reference to larger category
b. define attributes
• identify relevant and irrelevant attributes (guided discovery)
• give examples and nonexamples (tie to what is already known -- elaboration)
• use both inductive (example/experience --> definition) and deductive reasoning (definition --> examples)
• Name distinctive attributes (guided discovery)

USING THE INFORMATION PROCESSING APPROACH IN THE CLASSROOM
Principle Example
1. Gain the students' attention. • Use cues to signal when you are ready to begin.
• Move around the room and use voice inflections.
2. Bring to mind relevant prior learning. • Review previous day's lesson.
• Have a discussion about previously covered content.
3. Point out important information. • Provide handouts.
• Write on the board or use transparencies.
4. Present information in an organized manner. • Show a logical sequence to concepts and skills.
• Go from simple to complex when presenting new material.
5. Show students how to categorize (chunk) related information. • Present information in categories.
• Teach inductive reasoning.
6. Provide opportunities for students to elaborate on new information. • Connect new information to something already known.
• Look for similarities and differences among concepts.
7. Show students how to use coding when memorizing lists. • Make up silly sentence with first letter of each word in the list.
• Use mental imagery techniques such as the keyword method.
8. Provide for repetition of learning. • State important principles several times in different ways during presentation of information (STM).
• Have items on each day's lesson from previous lesson (LTM).
• Schedule periodic reviews of previously learned concepts and skills (LTM).
9. Provide opportunities for overlearning of fundamental concepts and skills. • Use daily drills for arithmetic facts.
• Play form of trivial pursuit with content related to class. References:
• Atkinson, R., & Shiffrin, R. (1968). Human memory: A proposed system and its control processes. In K Spence & J Spence (Eds.). The psychology of learning and motivation: Advances in research and theory (Vol. 2). New York: Academic Press.
• Bransford, J. (1979). Human cognition: Learning, understanding, and remembering. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
• Craik, F., & Lockhart, R. (1972). Levels of processing: A framework for memory research. Journal of Verbal Thinking and Verbal Behavior, 11, 671-684.
• Goleman, D. (1995). Emotional intelligence: Why it can matter more than IQ for character, health and lifelong achievement. New York: Bantam Books.
• Harman, W. (1970). An incomplete guide to the future. New York: W. W. Norton.
• Miller, G. A. (1956). The magical number seven, plus or minus two: Some limits on our capacity for processing information. Psychological Review, 63, 81-97. [Available online from Classics in the History of Psychology: http://www.well.com/user/smalin/miller.html]
• Rumelhart, D., & McClelland, J. (Eds.). (1986). Parallel distributed processing: Explorations in the microstructure of cognition. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
• Scientific American (eds.). (1999). The Scientific American book of the brain. New York: The Lyons Press.
• Stillings, N, Feinstein, M., Garfield, J., Rissland, E., Rosenbaum, D., Weisler, S., & Baker-Ward, L. (1987). Cognitive science: An introduction. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
• Principia Cybernetica Web. (no date). Model. Author.

Criticisms

• Models based upon Information Processing Theory takes a somewhat simplistic view of cognitve processing, with information processing being viewed as a largely linear process. This model does not take into account simultaneous or parallel processing. Another example where the linear model, which suggest rehearsal is required to encode information in long term memory, is likely faulty occurs in cases of trauma, where information can be encoded automatically and without rehearsal due to a single exposure to traumatic stimuli.
• The metaphor of the computer is off-putting to many, who dislike comparing human beings to machines. Additionally, no current computer program can truly simulate the full range of human cognition.
• Computer constructed models that are based upon this theory are highly complex and again cannot take into account all nuances of human thought despite their complexity.
• Information ProcessingTheory does not account for fundamental developmental changes, or changes to the "hardware" of the brain. For example, how do humans gain the ability to utilize representational thought utilizing language? How do people develop "formal operations" thinking, such as abstract logical or social thinking when they previously thought in "concrete" terms?
• There is an excessive focus on internal cognitive processes, with little attention being paid to environmental influences or the nature of the external stimuli the individual is exposed to. Additioanlly, the impact of emotions or behaviors on cognitive processing or interpretation is not sufficiently included in this model. For example, the information processing model does not consider how an individual can process a stimuli differently if they are angry versus if they are in a calm state.
• The information processing model is described as being universal, with little attention being paid to individual differences or cultural differences.
References and Suggested Further Readings

Ariel, S. (1987). An information processing theory of family dysfunction. Psychotherapy, 24, 477-495.

Atkinson, R. C., & Shiffrin, R. M. (1968). Human memory: A proposed system and its control processes. The psychology of learning and motivation, 89-105.

Best, R. (1983). We’ve all got scars: What boys and girls learn in elementary school. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.

Goodwin, C.J. (2005). A history of modern psychology. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Danvers, MA.
Hamamura, T., Meijer, Z., Heine, S.J., Kamaya, K., & Hori, I. (2009). Approach – avoidance motivation and information processing: A cross-cultural analysis. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 35, 454-462.

Miller, P. H. (2011). Theories of developmental psychology. New York, NY; Worth.

Rogers, P. R., Miller, A., & Judge, W. Q. (1999). Using information-processing theory to understand planning/performance relationships in the context of strategy. Strategic Management Journal, 20, 567-577.

Schmeichel, B. J., Vohs, K. D., & Baumeister, R. F. (2003). Intellectual performance and ego depletion: Role of the self in logical reasoning and other information processing. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85, 33– 46.

Shaki, S. & Gevers, W. (2011). Cultural characteristics dissociate magnitude and ordinal information processing. Journal of Cross-
Cultural Psychology, 42, 639-650.

Critical Evaluation
A number of models of attention within the Information Processing framework have been proposed including:
Broadbent's Filter Model (1958), Treisman's Attenuation Model (1964) andDeutsch and Deutsch's Late Selection Model (1963).
However, there are a number of evaluative points to bear in mind when studying these models, and the information processing approach in general.
These include:
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1. The information processing models assume serial processing of stimulus inputs.
Serial processing effectively means one process has to be completed before the next starts.
Parallel processing assumes some or all processes involved in a cognitive task(s) occur at the same time.
There is evidence from dual-task experiments that parallel processing is possible. It is difficult to determine whether a particular task is processed in a serial or parallel fashion as it probably depends (a) on the processes required to solve a task, and (b) the amount of practice on a task. Parallel processing is probably more frequent when someone is highly skilled; for example a skilled typist thinks several letters ahead, a novice focuses on just 1 letter at a time.
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2. The analogy between human cognition and computer functioning adopted by the information processing approach is limited. Computers can be regarded as information processing systems insofar as they:
(i) combine information presented with stored information to provide solutions to a variety of problems, and
(ii) most computers have a central processor of limited capacity and it is usually assumed that capacity limitations affect the human attentional system.
BUT -
(i) the human brain has the capacity for extensive parallel processing and computers often rely on serial processing;
(ii) humans are influenced in their cognitions by a number of conflicting emotional and motivational factors.
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3. The evidence for the theories/models of attention which come under the information processing approach is largely based on experiments under controlled, scientific conditions. Most laboratory studies are artificial and could be said to lack ecological validity.
In everyday life, cognitive processes are often linked to a goal (e.g. you pay attention in class because you want to pass the examination), whereas in the laboratory the experiments are carried out in isolation form other cognitive and motivational factors. Although these laboratory experiments are easy to interpret, the data may not be applicable to the real world outside the laboratory. More recent ecologically valid approaches to cognition have been proposed (e.g. the Perceptual Cycle, Neisser, 1976).
Attention has been studied largely in isolation from other cognitive processes, although clearly it operates as an interdependent system with the related cognitive processes of perception and memory. The more successful we become at examining part of the cognitive system in isolation, the less our data are likely to tell us about cognition in everyday life.
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4. The Models proposed by Broadbent and Treisman are 'bottom-up' or ‘stimulus driven’ models of attention. Although it is agreed that stimulus driven information in cognition is important, what the individual brings to the task in terms of expectations/past experiences are also important. These influences are known as 'top-down' or 'conceptually-driven' processes. For example, read the triangle below: Expectation (top-down processing) often over-rides information actually available in the stimulus (bottom-up) which we are, supposedly, attending to. How did you read the text in the triangle above?
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Further Information
Attention Audio Broadcasts
Listen to a MIT undergraduate lecture on Attention.
All broadcasts require Real Audio Player.
Publications Online
James, William. (1890). The principles of psychology. Chapter 11. Attention
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References
Broadbent, D. (1958). Perception and Communication. London: Pergamon Press.
Deutsch, J. A., & Deutsch, D. (1963). Attention: Some Theoretical Considerations. Psychological Review, 70, 80–90
Neisser, U. (1967). Cognitive Psychology. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
Treisman, A. (1964). Selective attention in man. British Medical Bulletin, 20, 12-16.
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How to cite this article:
McLeod, S. A. (2008). Information Processing. Retrieved from www.simplypsychology.org/information-processing.html

IMPLICATIONS FOR INSTRUCTION
The information processing model provides four important implications for improving learning and instruction. The first is that memory stores are extremely limited in both sensory and working memory. The two main strategies that effective learners use to cope with limited capacity are selectively focusing their attention on important information and engaging in as much automated processing as possible. From an educational perspective, it is essential for students to become automated at basic skills such as letter and word decoding, number recognition, and simple procedural skills such as handwriting, multiplication, and spelling. Automaticity makes available limited processing resources that can be used to engage in labor intensive self-regulation (Butler & Winne, 1995; Zeidner, Boekaerts, & Pintrich, 2000; Zimmerman, 2000) and comprehension monitoring (Schraw, 2001; Sternberg, 2001).
A second implication is that relevant prior knowledge facilitates encoding and retrieval processes. Highly effective learners possess a great deal of organized knowledge within a particular domain such as reading, mathematics, or science. They also possess general problem-solving and critical-thinking scripts that enable them to perform well across different domains. This knowledge guides information processing in sensory and working memory by providing easy-to-access retrieval structures in memory. It also serves as the basis for the development of expertise (Alexander, 2003; Ericsson, 2003). Thus, helping students use their prior knowledge when learning new information promotes learning.
A third implication is that automated information processing increases cognitive efficiency by reducing information processing demands. As discussed earlier, automaticity is an important aspect of effective learning for two reasons. One is that being automated makes it easier selectively to allocate limited resources to information that is most relevant to the task at hand. Unfortunately, there is no easy road to automaticity other than sustained, regular practice. In addition, automaticity frees limited resources that can be used for other activities such as drawing inferences and connecting new information to existing information in memory.
A fourth implication is that learning strategies improve information processing because learners are more efficient and process information at a deeper level (Pressley & Harris, 2006; Pressley & McDonald-Wharton, 1997). All effective learners draw from a repertoire of learning strategies in a flexible manner. Some of these strategies are used automatically, while some require controlled processing and metacognitive control that place high demands on limited cognitive resources. Good learners use a wide variety of strategies and use them in a highly automatic fashion. However, there are three general strategies that all effective learners use in most situations. These include organization, inferences, and elaboration (Mayer & Moreno, 2003). Organization refers to how information is sorted and arranged in long-term memory. Information that is related to what one already knows is easier to encode and retrieve than isolated information. In some cases, individuals already possess well organized knowledge with empty slots that can be filled easily with new information. Activating existing knowledge prior to instruction, or providing a visual diagram of how information is organized, is one of the best ways to facilitate learning new information. Constructing inferences involves making connections between separate concepts. Elaboration refers to increasing the meaningfulness of information by connecting new information to ideas already known.
See also:Cognitive Development, Cognitive Strategies, Memory, Metacognition
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gathered from the environment (Bornstein and Lamb 276). The environment confers sources of information (light and cold, among others) through which the mind reacts to by utilizing the electrical energy (Huit). The actions of short and long term memories are very significant to the understanding of the information theory. Short-term memory, which is very dominant in children, involves the ability to focus on a particular set of memory stimulating activities. These actions are usually very short depending on the type of stimuli, for instance, light stimuli can only last close to 10 seconds. Scholars point out that the child’s mind involves manipulation of symbols and symbolic structures, those that form a very consistent pattern to them (Borntein and Lamb 274). Long term memory also plays a part in information processing in children, but as psychological scholars point out, it is usually still developing at that particular age. It is the reason why most people cannot remember what they did at the age of 3 (Oswalt par.2). In children, the information processing theory advocates for the development of short-term memory which in turn fosters the advancement of the long-term memory. Therefore, in trying to develop the cognitive capacity of children, teachers need to focus on the environmental stimuli aspects that create a recognized pattern in the young minds. As Huitt points out, organization and repetition are very significant in developing the short-term and working memory in children. From a personal perspective, adapting to straightforward and relatable factors emphasized through repetition can form my basis of teaching young children. The strength of this particular theory is that it provides a sequential explanation of how the processing of sensory information into short-term memory occurs, followed by how its can conversion into long-term memory takes place. However, the limitation as argued out by Moos is that the theory assumes learning is only achievable in a “mechanical and passive manner” (6).

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Oswalt, Angela. “Early childhood cognitive development: Information processing.” Web. Jan 2008. Accessed 13 May 2016 from https://www.mentalhelp.net/articles/early-childhood-cognitive-development-information-processing/
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Tremblay, RE, Barr RG, Peters RDeV, Boivin M, (Eds.) Encyclopedia on Early Childhood Development [online]. Montreal: Centre of Excellence for Early Childhood Development. Retrieved from http://www.childencyclopedia.com/documents/BauerPathmanANGxp.pdf

Woolfolk, A & Margetts, K 2016 Educational Psychology 4th Edition, Pearson Australia, Melbourne.
Driscoll, M.P. (2005). Psychology of learning for instruction (3rd ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

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