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Inventory Management

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GERENCIA DE
INVENTARIOS (2)

1

Introducción
• Los pronósticos son el paso previo a la planeación
• Se deben estimar las condiciones que pueden existir en el futuro
• Algunos factores que pueden afectar son:
– Condiciones generales de la economía y los negocios – Factores competitivos
– Tendencias del mercado
– Planes propios de publicidad, mercadeo, precio y cambios sobre los productos (B/S)

Pronósticos

• Predicción futuros de

eventos

– Planeación de Producción
– Planeación Financiera
– Control de Procesos
– Planeación de Inversiones
– Planeación de actividades de servicio – Administración de Inventarios

Principios de los pronósticos
• Casi siempre están errados.
• Siempre se debe incluir una medida de error.
• Los pronósticos son más acertados para datos agrupados.
• Los pronósticos son más acertados para periodos más próximos.
• Se debe considerar la clasificación
ABC

Pasos
1. Definir el objetivo de los pronósticos
2. Recopilar y depurar los datos
3. Identificar los factores básicos que influencian el pronóstico
4. Determinar la técnica apropiada de pronósticos y sus parámetros correspondientes 5. Establecer el desempeño del pronóstico Definición del objetivo (1)
¿Para qué va a utilizar la información? Caso
• Estratégico, largo plazo
• Táctico, mediano plazo
• Operativo, corto plazo

Pronósticos de Demanda!!

Definición del objetivo (2)
Elementos de tiempo de un sistema de pronósticos: • Período del pronóstico: Unidad básica de tiempo para la cual será realizado el pronóstico.
• Horizonte del pronóstico: Número de períodos en el futuro que será cubierto por el pronóstico.
• Intervalo del pronóstico: Es la frecuencia con que el nuevo pronóstico será preparado.

Costo de pronosticar

Técnicas de pronóstico
• Cualitativas: Fundamentalmente subjetivas (Delphi, consenso) y cuando hay carencia de datos históricos (Estudio de mercados, analogía).
• Cuantitativas
– Intrínsecas: Se utilizan datos históricos. Datos independientes (promedios móviles, suavizaciones exponenciales) o correlacionados
(ARIMA).
– Extrínsecas: Se utiliza información externa sobre la que se asume correlación entre la demanda y factores económicos o demográficos
(Regresiones lineales)

Recopilar y depurar datos
• Identificar circunstancias especiales que hayan podido influenciar los datos.






Promociones
Cambios de precio
Competencia
Clima
Etc.

• Puede ser necesaria la separación por diferentes segmentos de mercado.
– Mayoristas
– Minoristas

¿Cómo hacemos el pronóstico? Datos atípicos
Observaciones
aisladas cuyo comportamiento se diferencia claramente del comportamiento medio del resto de observaciones. Tipos:
• Atípicos por error de procedimiento, por ejemplo errores de codificación, entrada de datos, etc.
• Atípicos extremos, son los que siendo veraces se sitúan fuera del rango normal de valores de la variable.

Identificación de datos atípicos • Histogramas
• Gráficas de control:
– ± 2,5σ para muestras pequeñas
– ± 3σ para muestras grandes

• Boxplot
Ejemplo

Identificar factores básicos
• Métodos intrínsecos:
– Coeficiente de variación
– Patrón de demanda:
• Componente estacionario (a): Constante o “promedio”
• Componente de tendencia (b): Crecimiento o decrecimiento • Componente estacional (F): Factor que se repite con la misma frecuencia
• Componente cíclico (c): Factor que se repite sin una frecuencia específica
• Componente aleatorio (): variabilidad independiente

• Métodos extrínsecos:
– Análisis de correlación

Patrones de demanda

1200
1000

800
600
400
200
0
0

10

20

30

Análisis de correlación

Técnicas de pronóstico
• Series estacionarias
– Promedio móvil simple
– Suavización exponencial simple
• Series con tendencia:
– Suavización exponencial doble
– Regresión lineal
• Series estacionales:
– Suavización exponencial triple (método de Winters)
• Regresiones (simples, múltiples)
• Demanda errática (esporádica):
– Método de Croston
• Demanda correlacionada
– Técnicas de Box-Jenkins (ARIMA)

Notación Notación = Demanda real del periodo t ,+ = Pronóstico realizado a partir de los datos disponibles hasta el periodo t para  periodos adelante Promedio móvil simple t ˆ xt ,t  



i  t  m 1

m

xi

Suavización exponencial simple

ˆ
ˆ
xt ,t    xt  (1   ) xt 1,t
ˆ
ˆ
ˆ
xt ,t   xt 1,t   ( xt  xt 1,t )
ˆ
ˆ xt ,t   xt 1,t   et
0  1
0, 01    0,30 (Silver)

Medidas de desempeño
Errores
Error acumulado (CFE-Cumulativo forecast error)
Error medio absoluto (MAD-Mean absolute deviation)
Error cuadrado medio (MSE-Mean square error)
Raíz del error cuadrático medio (RMSE)
Error medio absoluto porcentual (MAPE-Mean absolute porcentual error)
Desviación estándar
• Se espera que los errores se distribuyan de forma normal
~N(0,Var(e))
• Pruebas de normalidad, Chi-cuadrado, KolmogorovSmirnov
Sesgo – detección de cambios:
Señal de rastreo (TS-Tracking signal)

Errores de pronóstico

ˆ
Error de pronóstico  et  xt  xt 1,t
Error absoluto  et
Error cuadrático  e

2 t Desviación media absoluta:

e
MAD 

t

n
Error cuadrático medio:
MSE 

et2


n
Error porcentual medio absoluto: et x t MAPE 
 100 n Desviación estándar
Se puede estimar así:
• Desviación estándar de los errores de pronóstico:


et2


n 1

• A partir de los errores de pronóstico*:
  1, 25  MAD
  MSE

Demostración*
Se supone que el error es una variable aleatoria (x) que se distribuye normalmente con media µ y desviación estándar σ, entonces por definición el MAD es:

MAD 



x   f ( x )dx



Donde f(x) es la función de probabilidad, luego 1  x 

 

2

MAD  2  x  


MAD 




2

2



1

 2

e



MAD 1, 25MAD

2  

dx

Errores suavizados
Los errores se pueden actualizar cada vez que se tenga un nuevo dato de demanda, pero esto implica conservar todos los errores anteriores para el cálculo. Esto se puede corregir utilizando errores suavizados: ˆ
MADt   xt  xt 1,t  (1   ) MADt 1
ˆ
MSEt   ( xt  xt 1,t ) 2  (1   ) MSEt 1
0   1
0, 01    0,10 (Silver),  =0,1 (Axsater)

Señal de rastreo t 1. CFEt   et
CFEt
TSt 
, límites  3  TSt  3
MADt
ˆ
2. zt   ( xt  xt 1,t )  (1   ) zt 1 zt TSt 
, límites  1  TSt  1
MADt

Suavización Exponencial Doble



ˆ
ˆ
ˆ at   xt  1    at 1  bt 1



ˆ
ˆ
ˆ ˆ bt    at  at 1   1    bt 1
ˆ
ˆ
ˆ
xt ,t   at   bt

Método de Holt-Winters
Suavización Exponencial Triple

29

Método Multiplicativo
 xt 
ˆ
ˆ
ˆ
at   
 1    at 1  bt 1

ˆ
Ft  P 

ˆ
ˆ
ˆ ˆ bt    at  at 1   1    bt 1



 xt
ˆ
Ft   
ˆ
 at
ˆ
xt ,t 


ˆ
 1    Ft  P


ˆ ˆ
ˆ
 at   bt Ft   P







Técnicas para demanda errática
Método de Croston yt  demanda del ítem en el periodo t pt  estimado del intervalo promedio entre ocurrencias de demanda zt  estimado de la demanda promedio
ˆ
yt  estimado de la demanda promedio por periodo q  intervalo de demanda desde la última ocurrencia

Pronóstico usando Croston
Si yt=0 pt= pt-1 zt= zt-1
Si yt>0 pt= pt-1 + α(q - pt-1) zt= zt-1 + β(yt - zt-1) ŷt= zt / pt

Inicialización
Tomar un número de periodos iniciales:

zt = promedio de los valores positivos pt = promedio de los intervalos entre ocurrencias de demanda

Métodos causales
• Asumen que la demanda esta correlacionada con factores externos • Se construye un modelo para relacionar esos factores
(variables) independientes exógenos con la demanda
• Ejemplos:
– Pañales ~f(tasa de natalidad del año anterior)
– Camisetas de equipos ~f(desempeño del equipo e individual)
– Ventas regionales ~f(características demográficas de la región) – Sombrillas ~f(clima, temperatura, lluvia)

• Métodos a usar:
– Variables continuas
– Discretas
– Binarias

Regresión lineal
• La relación se describe en función de un modelo lineal
• Los términos (xi,yi) corresponden a los pares de observaciones a partir de las cuales se estima los coeficientes β que minimicen los residuales (errores)

Yi   0  1 x1i  ...   k xki   i

i

E (Y x1 , x2 ,..., xk )   0  1 x1  ...   k xk
StdDev(Y x1 , x2 ,..., xk )  

Coeficiente de determinación (R2)
• Mide la bondad de ajuste del modelo
• Muestra la cantidad de variación
(varianza) que el modelo “explica”
• Valores altos son mejores, pero:
– El modelo debe tener sentido
– No necesariamente indican causalidad
(puede tratarse de casualidad)
– Es importante tener en cuenta el p-value y el
R2 ajustado
– R2 ajustado indica si incluir nuevas variables independientes cambia el R2

Causas de imprecisión en los sistemas de pronósticos

• Utilización de datos poco confiables
• Utilización de datos de ventas y no de demanda
• Sesgos en los pronósticos
• Velocidad de respuesta al cambio
• Comportamiento de los proveedores
• Casos especiales de demanda en los pronósticos • Selección del período de los pronósticos Pronósticos de productos nuevos
• ¿Qué es un producto nuevo?
– Algo que no existe en el mercado
– Pero también:
• Uno mejorado
• Una extensión del existente
• Uno dirigido a un nuevo mercado
• Uno con precio o costo diferente al que está en el mercado

Necesidad de pronosticar
• Planeación de la capacidad
• Decisiones de abastecimiento, programación, niveles de inventario, etc.
• Decisiones logísticas en la red de distribución • Decisiones de mercadeo en relación a la mezcla de mercadeo y los presupuestos
• Decisiones de ventas: entrenamiento del personal de ventas y el material de soporte • Decisiones financieras

Métodos









Investigación de mercados
Juicio experto
Opinión de fuerza de ventas
Grass roots
Delphi
Simulación
Métodos cuantitativos
Composición de métodos

Reducción de la incertidumbre • Risk pooling
– Estandarización
– Consolidación
– Modularización

• Time compression
– Reducción del tiempo de entrega
– Postponement

• Information management
– Métodos cualitativos
– Minería de datos

Gestión de la demanda

Bibliografía
• Silver, E.; Pyke, D., Peterson, R.
Inventory Management and Production
Planning and Scheduling. 3ª edición.
Wiley. 1998.
• Axsäter, S. Inventory Control. 2ª edición.
Springer. 2006.
• Montgomery, C.; Jennings, C.; Kulahci,
M. Introduction to Time Series Analysis and Forecasting. Wiley. 2008.

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...INVENTORY MANAGEMENT INTRODUCTION Inventory is a detailed list of movable goods such as raw materials, work in progress, finished goods, spares, tools, and consumables, general supplies which are necessary to manufacture products and to maintain the plant and machinery in good working condition. Generally, Inventory refers to the materials in stock. Inventory management is the overseeing and controlling of the ordering, storage and use of components that a company will use in the production of the items it will sell as well as the overseeing and controlling of quantities of finished products for sale.  RATIONALE OF KEEPING INVENTORY Every organization should consider keeping inventory for the following major reasons: a. To keep pace with changing market conditions Organizations have to anticipate the changing market sentiments and they have to stock materials in anticipation of non-availability of materials or sudden increase in prices. b. To prevent loss of sales/ orders In a competitive scenario, one has to meet the delivery schedules at 100 percent service level, they cannot afford to miss the delivery schedule which may result in loss of sales. c. To take advantage of price discounts Manufacturers offer discount for bulk buying and to gain this price advantage the materials are bought in bulk even though they are not required immediately. d. To meet the demand during replenishment period The lead time for procurement of materials depends upon...

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Inventory Management

...The importance of inventory management evidenced by retail sales and inventory increases US retail sales increased 1.1% in February after increasing 0.4% in January. Sales of automobiles and parts as well as gasoline helped push retail sales to its largest gain since September 2011. The increase in retail sales was preceded by an increase in inventories for the month of January. The growing confidence in an improving economy has resulted in an inventory increase of 0.7% and a 1.1% increase among retailers (see Ti Dashboard – Inventories: US Manufacturers' and Trade Inventories). This was the biggest increase since June 2010. Automobiles and parts accounted for much of the increase, climbing 2.6%. Excluding the automotive sector, retail inventories were up 0.4%. At the current sales pace, businesses have enough goods on hand to last 1.27 months, the same as in December. The last time the ratio was lower was in March 2011. According to the "State of the Retail Supply Chain" by Auburn University, Retail Industry Leaders Association (RILA) and sponsored by Accenture, balancing inventory and demand has long been a perennial challenge for retailers. The increase in e-commerce has added an additional challenge to inventory management, as many retailers seek to integrate inventory management of both physical stores and e-commerce operations. A survey conducted by Aberdeen Group indicated that half of respondents did not have access to real-time inventory order data, which made...

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Inventory Management

...Supply Chain Management L.L Bean Inc October 27, 2011 Presented by: Ahsan Khawar Fahd Iqtidar Mir Nabeel Siraj Umair Babar Chishti 12020378 12020367 12020325 12020157 Q.1 L.L. Bean uses several different calculations in order to determine the number of units of a particular item it should stock, whether it is a new item or a never out item. It first freezes a forecast for its demand for the upcoming season. This figure is a result of a consensus between the product people, buyers and inventory managers. Once the predicted demand is frozen, L.L. Bean uses its historical demand and forecast data to analyze the forecasting errors. The forecast errors are calculated for each individual item and a frequency distribution of these is made, which is further used as a probability distribution for future errors. Thus, if 50% of the errors were within 0.7 and 1.6, the forecast for this year would be adjusted accordingly. Next, each item commitment quantity was tabulated using its individual contribution margin and salvage value if any. For e.g. if an item had a margin of $15 if sold, and $5 loss if not sold, the commitment value would be 0.75. Hence the optimal stock to keep would be 0.75 fractile of the probability distribution of demand. If for instance, the corresponding error for 0.75 is 1.3, the optimal stock to keep for that item would be 1.3 * frozen forecast. Hence, this value is the stock for that item. Q.2 We explain different scenarios to determine relevant costs...

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