ISLAM AND ITS PERSPECTIVE ON KNOWLEDGE

AND SOCIAL ORDER
Dr Zafar Iqbal

An Overview of Islam

Islam means tranquillity and peace. This word (22:78; 5:03)[1] comes from the inquiry that lies at the core of the whole edifice of Islam: what kind of life ought one to live to attain bliss (falah) in the here and the hereafter (1:1-6; 7:96)? The answer lies in reflecting on the purpose of life i.e., why are we here? What does it mean to be a human being? Are we the product of a random evolution of atoms and molecules clinging together or part of a bigger plan? How are we measuring up to our evolution or creation?

Revelation responds to these questions by taking the position that everything in the universe is part of a meticulous plan being executed by the First Cause - God - who is the Creator of all, each with sustenance and purpose (11:6). He has created humankind[2] not in vain but to serve as His agents / trustees / viceroys on the earth (6:165; 35:39; 57:7). In this capacity, they are required to manage the resources of the earth such that all benefit equitably[3] and the original balance in creation is maintained (55:7-9). To this end, they are bound by a covenant with God (7:172; 20:115) and every action that they undertake with the intention of fulfilling that covenant constitutes an act of worship (51:56-7). Thus the temporal and spiritual are inextricably linked from an Islamic perspective. There are several other unique features of this God-human relationship. First, the Principal here is the One, Incomparable, Sovereign, Eternal, Omniscient, Omnipotent, and Active God Whose Will reigns supreme in the universe. It is by His Will that human beings have limited free will and agency to operate the trust. In this larger context, humankind are in reality mere slaves of God dependant on His grace for every moment of their freedom and existence (34:9; 35:15-6; 47:38). Second, properly operated, there is enough in the trust for all beneficiaries (7:10). Third, there is a continuous monitoring of trustee actions albeit, the mechanisms for such monitoring are not amenable directly to human sense perception (6:59; 11:05; 50:17-8). Fourth, the trust is established for a limited period and each trustee is appointed for a finite term too at the end of which is performance evaluation and accountability of all action with mercy and justice (50:16-35; 89:21-30). Fifth, personal responsibility is the cornerstone of accountability. Thus ‘no bearer of burdens can bear the burden of another (17:15).’

A question arises, how are human beings equipped to handle this responsibility? In other words, what is the Islamic concept of the basic unit of agency and responsibility i.e. a person - the Homo Islamicus - in terms of his / her moral, intellectual, and operative powers? Revelation informs that a person is created in the best mould (al-fitrah) suited to measure up to the task of being the trustee of God on earth (30:30; 75:02; 95:4). He / she is given a three-dimensional constitution: spiritual (i.e., intellect (ruh): 15:29), rational (i.e., psyche / soul (nafs): 91:7-10), and material (i.e., body: 15:28).[4] The spiritual dimension is a ray of the Divine intellect in human beings that distinguishes them from cattle (25:43-4; 7:179) by making impressions on their heart (qalb) imparting God consciousness and awareness of the right and wrong of a situation (faced in managing the trust 8:24; 6:125). In contrast to this is the rational dimension which is associated with sense perception and the activities of brain that is the locus of analysis, accumulation of knowledge, ego, free will, decision making and execution through the corporeal (bodily) dimension. This faculty brings the use of earth’s resources within human reach and at the disposal of their free will (31:20) giving them the semblance of power and control. No wonder then that the rational in a person is prone to corruption (self-gratification) unless guided by the spiritual. This is evident from the following verse of the Holy Qur’an: -

By the soul and the proportion and order given to it; And its enlightenment as to its wrong and its right; Truly he succeeds that purifies it; And he fails that corrupts it! (91:07-10)[5]

In general, there is a struggle in an individual between the spiritual and the rational resulting in what may be called as the different conditions of human soul. Three such conditions are identified in the Holy Qur’an: first, the nafs-al-mutma’inna (89:27) i.e., the pacified soul, the soul having integrated with the spiritual and attained control over its passions and desires; second, the nafs-al-lawwamah (75:2) i.e., the soul which blames and reproaches itself on imperfections; and, third, nafs-al-ammarah bi al-su (12:53), the soul which makes suggestions to indulge in wrongdoing i.e., denying responsibilities under the trust. It is important to note that when a person gives himself up to this last condition i.e., loses his / her will to act morally then he / she falls to what is called the lowest of the low (asfala-safileen) in the Holy Qur’an i.e., the one who has starved or severed his / her contact with the spiritual: -

By the fig and the olive, and by Mount Sinai, and by this city (i.e., Makkah) made safe. Surely, We created man in the best mould. Then he became the lowest of the low. Save those who believe and do good deeds. For them is a reward unfailing. (95: 1-6)

How does it happen? And what are its implications? The short answer to this question is that the Principal per se and His monitoring mechanisms (the metaphysical) are not amenable to sense perception. As they say, out of sight, out of mind. And insofar as representations of the spiritual on the heart are concerned, a repeat neglect blocks the very flow of these signals. This is explained by the following tradition: -

The slave [of God i.e. a person] continues to lie and a black spot grows in his heart until all his heart becomes black. Then he is written, in Allah's sight, among the liars. (Malik's Muwatta (Hadith, 56.18; also see Tirmidhi, 2337))[6]

The Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) also provides a deeper insight: the role of the immediate environment in corrupting an individual. Thus a person is led away from his / her inborn nature owing to conditioning by parents and society (social interaction).[7] This means that the rational-self in individuals and communities - i.e., the subjective ‘I’ and/or national ‘ego’ - is grown at the cost of spiritual awareness of human status in the cosmos resulting in a distortion of the natural order and balance in the psyche. As a result, rational-self’s capacity to distinguish right from the wrong and just from the unjust is atrophied. This leads to doubt on the origin-destiny-accountability framework (19:66), feeling of self-sufficiency (96:6-8), extreme love, pride and race for worldly possessions (100:8; 104:1-3; 18:31-4; 9:55; 4:29; 2:212; 102:1,2), impatience (70:19), desperateness (41:49), extravagance (17:27), contentious behaviour (18:54; 16:04), miserliness (4:37; 17:100), hypocrisy (9:101), and mischief on land (2:11, 12, 204-5; 17:16). The result is fight of one subjective ‘I’ with another, bloodshed, and transgression (2:30) from the behaviour worthy of being the trustees of God on earth.

It is to redeem humanity from such lowly behaviour that God, in His infinite mercy, has throughout history appointed His Messengers / Apostles / Prophets (17:94, 95) so that they show their fellow beings the right path and remind them of their covenant, status, moral responsibility, destiny, and accountability. According to one tradition from Prophet Muhammad (pbuh), since creation, God has appointed as many as 124,000 Apostles across different settlements on earth. The Holy Qur’an mentions the names of twenty eight such figures but informs that the list is by no means exhaustive (Zakaria, 1991, p.347). Each Apostle shall act as witness upon his community on the day of judgement (final accountability) testifying that he conveyed God’s message to his people (10:47; 16:84,89; 2:143). Muhammad (pbuh) is the final Messenger of God and the Holy Qur’an is the last Book of guidance revealed by God (33:40; 7:157; 3:81).[8] Muhammad (pbuh) is sent as a Messenger toward all humanity (34:28; 5:19). Whoever accepts the message revealed through him is called a Muslim.

Note, however, that in spite of its claim to finality, Islam does not consider itself either a sect or an ethnic religion. In its view all revealed religion is one in matters of faith, virtue, and much social guidance. Thus Islam is the religion preached by all the Messengers of God. It is the truth taught by all the Divine Books. It is in this spirit that the Holy Qur’an demands Muslims to acknowledge all past revelation. Consider, for example, the following verses of the Holy Qur’an: -

Say: ‘We believe in Allah and in what has been revealed to us and what was revealed to Abraham, Isma`il, Isaac, Jacob and the Tribes, and in (Books) given to Moses, Jesus and the Prophets from their Lord; we make no distinction between one and another among them and to Allah do we bow our will in Islam.’ (3:84). The same religion has He established for you as that which He enjoined on Noah … on Abraham, Moses, and Jesus : namely that ye should remain steadfast in religion and make no divisions therein. … (42:13-14).

Nevertheless, it is expected that many may differ with this stance. Islam accommodates such differences. Thus God enunciates in the Holy Qur’an: -

Unto each nation have We given sacred rites which they are to perform; so let them not dispute with thee of the matter, but summon thou unto thy Lord. Lo! Thou indeed followest right guidance. And if they wrangle with thee, say: Allah is best aware of what ye do. (22: 67-8) …To each among you, We have prescribed a Law and a clear way. If Allah had willed, He would have made you a single nation, but (His plan is) to test you in what He has given you; so compete in good deeds. The goal of you all is to Allah; then He will inform you the truth of the matters in which you used to dispute. (5:48).

It is in this vein then that Islam invites followers of all faiths to engage in a struggle to implement the revealed standards of morality in practical life. In the words of Nasr (1988 [1994], p.54), it is only the sacred that can enable human beings to remove the veil which hides from them their true nature. And it is only the sacred, which comes from the Spirit and not the psyche, that can be the source of ethics, of aesthetics in its traditional sense, of metaphysical doctrine and of methods of realisation. From an Islamic standpoint, then, herein lies the fundamental challenge of a person’s being. He / she could submit to God by following a transcendent criterion of faith, morality and justice (23:71) - that caters for all the needs of human nature (7:31-2) - and succeed, or, he / she could renounce that code, follow his / her desire and face the consequences. (1:6-7; 24:55; 40:82). How does this world-view shape the Islamic position on governance on earth and knowledge? This is the question to which we turn below.

The Status and Concept of Knowledge in Islam

Islam lays great stress on human beings to fulfil their responsibilities, as trustees of God on earth, from a position of knowledge. This is evident from the maiden revelation to the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) that emphasises the importance of reading and writing that lie at the heart of the process of learning and transmitting knowledge: -

Read! In the name of thy Lord and Cherisher, Who created - Created man out of a (mere) clot of congealed blood. Proclaim! And thy Lord is Most Bountiful. He Who taught (the use of) the pen - taught man that which he knew not (96: 1-5).

The significance of acquiring knowledge is also made manifest in the Qur’anic parable of the origin of man wherein at one moment, knowledge distinguishes man from angels (2:31-4) while at the other, its loss to vain desire (wish to secure a kingdom that never decays! 20:120) causes him to fall and embroil himself in toil (2:35-6). Yet the potential remains to rise from this fallen state - again through knowledge (2:37-8) - or fall further in to abyss through desire (2:39). It is no coincidence then that the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) told his companions that seeking knowledge was an act of worship and a binding duty on every Muslim man and woman (Mishkat (Karim, 1969)). In fact, he even ranked the act of learning higher than the act of supererogatory worship: ‘The superiority of a learned person over the devout’ he said ‘is like that of the moon, on the night when it is full, over the rest of the stars. The learned are the heirs of the Prophets, and the Prophets leave neither dinar nor dirham but only knowledge, and he who takes it takes an abundant portion (Abu Dawood (Hadith, 3634)).’ A question arises, to what kind of knowledge does this saying refer?

A moment’s reflection on the diverse Qur’anic verses (quoted later in this section) that motivate people to acquire knowledge makes it clear that there is an emphasis on both the sacred and the profane knowledge. And this means acquiring knowledge so as to know God (His attributes and relationship with the creature), to know oneself (i.e., human abilities, potential, responsibilities, and obligations), and to know the rest of the creation so as to administer earth’s affairs equitably. What is being demanded in this respect is embodied in the two terms, ilm and hikmah, that the Holy Qur’an brings frequently in lieu of knowledge. As Mahdi (1994) states, the Arabic word ilm derives from the root -l-m and in its breadth covers knowledge of both the social and natural phenomenon. In comparison, hikmah derives from the root h-k-m and it refers to practical judgement or wisdom in dealing with human affairs (in the spheres of law, economics, administration, and politics etc.). It also stands for pursuing the right conduct / way of life. From these meanings, it can be argued that without hikmah, a person is short sighted and prone to corruption i.e. inclined to using ilm solely for advancing self-interest. Hikmah aims to alleviate this tendency by introducing a longer-term, origin-destiny-accountability framework that, if assimilated, makes people realise their status in the cosmos and act justly (adl and qist), altruistically (ikhlas) and benevolently (ihsan). A question arises, how are ilm and hikmah acquired?

This investigation has two aspects. One concerns the nature of reality that confronts humankind and the other pertains to the nature and reach of faculties given to them to grasp this reality. Insofar as the nature of reality is concerned, it can be argued that there are many different ways in Islam to conceptualise it. Below, we pick up three ideas: -

The first thought focuses on the Creator / created divide and recognises that on the one hand, there is a Supreme (Un-created) Reality that is God Who is the First and Everlasting and above the rules of change, withering, and perishing (6:59-60; 2:255; 55:26-7; 7:172, 54; 30:11). On the other hand is the reality that is God’s creation (the created reality) and subject to the mandate and rules specified by God.

The second idea focuses on human sense perception and its relation to the reality that confronts. Thus there is a world that is hidden from human sense perceptions (al ghayb) and a universe that is open (visible / manifest) to their sense perception (al shahadah) (9:105; 32:06; 39:46; 59:22; 62:08) (Acikgenc, 1994). And the manifest reality, that also includes humankind per se, is acting as a symbol i.e., pointing toward that which is hidden, and among the hidden to God.

Finally, the third idea conceives reality in terms of the will of humankind in relation to the Will of God. Thus there is this whole of reality in which God’s Will reigns supreme. In comparison, there is a tiny sub-domain of this whole reality that is given to the will of humankind subject to the Will of God. This latter domain belongs to what the second idea above categorises as the created manifest reality and it can be further subdivided into two realms: the physical world and the social world.

The Islamic standpoint is that the possibilities of human knowledge about these different domains of reality differ. Thus information about the Supreme Reality is imbued in every soul. In the event, given open mind, it is considered possible to appreciate the existence of the First Cause through logic (6:75-80) as well as by relating empirical impressions from the physical world to the perceptions of heart (qalb) on which the Hidden makes spiritual representations (6:75-80; 50:36-7; 22:46; 7:179). Above all, revealed Books conveyed through Messengers of God are the final word on information about God (7:172; 2:38; 36:60). These books also are the only source of information on the created hidden reality that includes angels, Satan, the hereafter, heaven, hell, the exact future, prophecy etc. The Islamic position on these entities is that human beings cannot ‘know’ of this domain through sense perception. It is belief in revelation that makes people this realm intelligible (2:03). And there too, only as much information is given as is absolutely necessary for them to grasp (72:26-8; 6:59, 114, 115).

This brings us to our main area of concern, the created manifest reality (al-shahadah). Here, we first take up the case of physical reality i.e., the reality that follows exact laws or so does it appear to human beings. Scores of verses in the Holy Qur’an[9] instigate people to ponder on this domain because this is the very realm that is subjected to human rational capacity as the vicegerents of God on earth. It is this domain which is amenable to human discovery, engineering, and reverse-engineering. The modus operandi of acquiring knowledge on this realm is elucidated in the following verses: -

And He taught Adam all the names, then showed them to the angels, saying: inform me of the names of these, if ye are truthful. They said: Be glorified! We have no knowledge saving that which Thou hast taught us. (2:31-2). And Allah brought you forth from the wombs of your mothers knowing nothing, and gave you hearing and sight and hearts that haply ye might give thanks. (16:78). Read: In the name of thy Lord who created. Created human beings out of a (mere) clot of congealed blood. Read and thy Lord is Most Bountiful. He Who taught (human beings) by the pen. Taught them that which they knew not. (96:1-5)

These verses together with many others in the Holy Qur’an support both the use of reason and sense perception (experience) as the source of knowledge. It can also be argued from the above verses that the rational in humankind is structured so as to develop the knowledge of physical objects through mapping such objects with the ideas pertaining to them. And in this respect, arguably the first of the above verses informs that the One with absolute knowledge (God) implanted a priori certain structure and categories of knowledge in human beings that were necessary for them to act as the trustees of God on earth. This includes knowledge about the essence of many forms of matter. Thus human knowledge of the physical world is akin to a single tree which sprouted from the seedling that was sown a priori into Adam’s mind and successive generations of Adam’s progeny have continued to nurture and grow this tree further through the God-given ability to conjecture, reason and experience, and by transmitting knowledge. Yet, no understanding reached through reason is necessarily a ‘final word.’ Rather, it is subject to continuous corroboration or falsification. Note also that the laws that govern matter are fixed as such and humanity can only benefit by obeying such laws rather than contravening them.

Akin to the fixed laws of matter are some basic rules of morality and justice that are based on human nature. They constitute the straight path (1:6; 6:87, 126, 153; 29:38; 42:52; 43:61) treading which alone can ensure peace and harmony on earth. One similitude of these rules is that of the laws governing the motion of the sun, moon, and other heavenly bodies. They all swim in the space following exact paths failing which will bring a chaos in the universe (36:38-40). Nevertheless, human beings are different in that they are given choice after the right / straight path has ben made manifest to them through revelation (33:72). This brings us to examining the nature and possibilities of knowledge about the social reality i.e., the fourth domain of reality mentioned above. Here the Qur’anic position is based on a ‘triple distinction,’ first, between the basic rules of ethics / morality / justice on which human beings ought to organise their society (to fulfil trustee responsibilities) and the rules on which they have historically tended to organise the society. Second, between people’s speculative analysis of some aspects of the past and present ‘social reality’ and the truth about this matter that can be reached in the light of revelation. And third, against the backdrop of these two elements, elucidation of the scope of revelation and rationality in organising human affairs. Below we attempt to explain and integrate these points.

On the issue of the basic rules of ethics and justice on which a society ought to be organised, the Holy Qur’an (5:44-50) categorically enunciates that it is the prerogative of God (as the owner of the trust)[10]. We have already explained some reasons for this stand in the previous section on the origin, nature, and destiny of humankind. To add to that list, there are pointers in the Holy Qur’an to the laws that operate in terms of relating human action to its consequences.[11] Thus although humankind are given free will in terms of intention and action, the laws that bring fruit to these actions are the prerogative of God. This is one aspect of the Islamic position that human free will to act resides within the Will of God. In other words, people can set aside the revealed standards of justice / morality and replace them with a rationally constructed order (that they consider as better than that based on revealed principles) but this is as far as they can go. People’s rational justification - that we argued above is prone to corruption without guidance from the spiritual - is no justification for the Eternal to ‘adjust’ the rules that He has set in place to deliver the consequence of human action. Quite to the contrary, the Holy Qur’an emphasises that: -

If the Truth had been in accord with their desires truly the heavens and the earth and all beings therein would have been in confusion and corruption! Nay We have sent them their admonition but they turn away from their admonition. (23:71)

It is against this backdrop then that the Holy Qur’an invites human beings to reflect on their own history and archaeology (empirical evidence) and see the relationship between digressions from the revealed norms and their consequences.[12] Thus there are two dimensions to examining a (past or present) social order, a material dimension and a spiritual dimension. And it is only by combining the two together that a complete and full picture of the social reality that ‘was’ and ‘is’ can be understood. And in this analysis, people ought not engross themselves over the here and now but rather with a longer than their life perspective. This is because consequences of injurious action are not necessarily delivered forthwith. Rather, the rule appears to be as follows: -

If Allah were to (fully) recompense men according to what they deserve He would not leave on the back of the (earth) a single living creature but He gives them respite for an appointed term. (35:45). To every people (nation) there is a term appointed; when their term is reached not an hour can they cause delay nor (an hour) can they advance (in its anticipation). (10:49).

Thus rationality tainted with desire and conjecture as the sole basis of organising human life may prosper for a while (9:55) but ultimately it leads to fight of one with another and grave imbalances through and through into the system that is set in place to host humankind. Likewise, there is a respite and waiting too for those who stumble but then struggle again to make themselves worthy of God’s trust. Consider, for example, the following hadith: -

The Prophet (peace be upon him) said: I hope my community will not fail to maintain their position in the sight of their Lord if He delays them half a day. Sa'd was asked: How long is half a day? He said: it is five hundred years. (Abu-Dawood (Hadith, 4336))

Clearly, from an Islamic standpoint, long term cycles in history i.e. rise and fall of nations depend in essence on adopting a normative path in conformity or opposition to revealed standards of righteousness and justice. No wonder in this case that the Holy Qur’an reminds the heavy responsibility that comes along with the status of being the trustee of God on earth, in terms of the following parable: -

We did indeed offer the Trust to the Heavens and the Earth and the Mountains: but they refused to undertake it being afraid thereof: but man undertook it … (33:72-3)

The above argument can be summarised by saying that insofar as the rules of a peaceful social order are revealed, by definition, reason or experience (empirical) cannot refute them given their imperfections noted above. Nonetheless, the use of empirical cannot be ruled out to deeply understand and substantiate these rules.

Given the profound significance of this standpoint for the methodology of social sciences, we may cast yet another eye on it, this time from a slightly different angle, viz., what is the relationship between a knower / observer and what can be known about the social domain? We begin by referring to the insight of the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) mentioned above that highlighted the role of the immediate environment in conditioning a person away from his / her inborn nature. Some contemporary sociologists and communitarians appear to be at one with his stance. Leming (2002), for example, explains that as individuals grow, they locate themselves within a socially created order - nomos or culture or tradition - by sharing collectively produced behavioural expectations, roles, identities, aspirations, and by implication, economic preferences. This process serves the function of ordering of experience: a meaningful normative order, or nomos, is imposed upon lives of individuals and their discrete experiences providing a shield against instability. And, although once produced a culture cannot be wished away, a person by no means is an inert, passive participant in this socially created ‘reality.’ He / she is an active participant both in adapting to it as well as shaping it through socialisation and re-socialisation. This possibility of change, however, may not come with ease if we bring to bear the Qur'anic insights of a public choice nature (mentioned above) on this model of the social reality. In particular, the historical examples and parables given in the Holy Qur’an (e.g., 6:123; 33:67; 10:75-78, 83) depict that some human interests and instruments are wedded with reproducing ‘what is’ and / or engineering and legitimising a social order that is removed from the innate nature of human beings. Thus ‘what is,’ is tainted with desire, there are high stakes in legitimising and maintaining it, and there are influential groups that actively ‘engineer’ it to keep it removed from the ‘revealed.’ As a result, unto every people / nation, their deeds seem fair (6:108). It is because of this reason that ‘conjecture’ alone becomes a very poor basis for obtaining certain knowledge about the medium to long term consequences of a given social order. ‘What ought to be’ therefore cannot be derived from ‘what is’ unless a transcendent criterion of certain knowledge is brought in to provide guidance on social reality. It is against this backdrop that Islam lays a great stress on keeping one eye on the material cause and another on the spiritual while analysing past and present human action. In conclusion, given the rational in humankind, without the guidance of the spiritual, is amenable to corruption due to desire, the interpretation that one is inclined to put on the ‘empirical in social’ could be widely off the mark from the correct or ‘true’ interpretation.

There is another dimension to the relationship between humankind and what can be known about the reality. Muslims believe that the knowledge of God is limitless (6:59; 11:5; 19:109) and that of human beings finite. To them, it appears a travesty of justice that a person who originates from a lowly drop of fluid (36: 77, 78, 81) and gets exalted only by the Spirit that God infuses in him / her (15:29) then stand up against God and take his / her rationality superior than that commanded by God. The parable of Moses and Khidhr (peace be upon them) in the Holy Qur’an (18: 65-82) alludes to this ‘bounded rationality’ aspect of human nature.

Thus Islam takes the stand that reason has only a conjectural and evolutionary understanding of the physical and social phenomenon. While it is fine to be conjectural about the physical reality, in case of the social reality, conjecture provides a very loose footing to get around in a world of which human beings have a very limited understanding. It is in this vein then that the Holy Qur’an challenges: -

Say: Is there of your partners that leadeth to the Truth? Say: God leadeth to the Truth. Is He Who leadeth to the Truth more deserving that He should be followed, or he who findeth not the way unless he (himself) be guided. What aileth you? How judge ye? Most of them follow naught but conjecture. Assuredly conjecture can by no means take the place of truth. Lo! God is Aware of what they do. (10:35-6)

Accordingly, revelation is seen in Islam as a source of knowledge that is consistent, clear, beyond doubt, and standing out from error (2:02, 256). It is distinct from raw desire or conjecture (10:35-6; 45:23). It provides a firm basis for human beings to act when they must act one way or another. Revelation shows the straight path (sirat al mustaqim 1: 5) that is most consistent with uncorrupted human nature (30:30). It guides reason to the inner unchanging reality of life against its changing external forms / conditions. It leads to higher consciousness, conformity, and subservience to the purpose and source of life (5:15-6). And it comes turned into practical wisdom (hikmah) by the Prophets (2:129, 151; 33:21).

With such an unequivocal Islamic stand on the scope of revelation in organising human affairs, it is not surprising that there is a fiduciary aspect to revelation. Those who accept it as a sure source of knowledge (ilm al yaqin (102:05)) must convey it and not hide any of it (3:186-87; 5:15; 2:159, 174-76; 6:91). They must believe in the whole of it and not revise it to befit their conjectures (6:115-16; 2:78, 79, 85). And they must hold each other’s hands to make a joint struggle to implement it in their lives (3:110).

So far we have examined the Islamic stand on the ‘divinity’ of the core principles of justice. We now move to understanding the scope of rationality in relation to social organisation. On this issue, three points are worthy of note. First, the revealed principles need to be actualised and that means discovering / developing the best institutional means to achieving that goal. Second, in the course of individual and collective living, there are inevitably going to arise innumerable situations requiring the contextual application of revealed principles. And third, there are matters on which revelation is quiet giving humanity scope for the application of rationality. The essence of this stand is that reason once trained in ethics and principles of justice, can then be left on its own to apply these tools to resolve the simple and the complex in human affairs.

In summary, Islam considers individual tranquillity, social harmony, and eco-balance as different aspects of the same fundamental struggle to living a moral, balanced, and just life. Revealed knowledge plays a crucial role in this struggle by providing an anchor of certainty to an otherwise conjectural rationality. Such certainty is open to re-confirmation as the sign / proof of God’s Power and Absolute Knowledge, within an evolving paradigm of rational understanding, if only humankind could bring in the revealed axioms to arbitrate amidst alternative interpretations (conjectures) of the (empirical in the) social and its link with the physical phenomenon (say, environmental disasters). This is how Islam synthesises physics and metaphysics, social and physical phenomenon, and the revealed and rational knowledge.

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[1] The numbers within brackets point to the supporting argument from the Holy Qur’an. To illustrate (22:78) refers to chapter 22, verse 78.
[2] Note that the Holy Qur’an (33:35; 9:71-2) makes it clear that its message is addressed to both men and women and brings a variety of words like ins, insan, nas, bashar, nafs etc. (i.e. humankind, human beings, people, person etc. ) while addressing humanity in general. However, when it comes to the event of creation per se, then the reference is to Adam from whom was created his mate (Eve) and from them countless men and women. The philosophical significance of Adam is that in him lies the equality of man and woman, black and white, a Jew and a Gentile, and an Arab and a non-Arab. If we take out creation represented by Adam and substitute evolution - perhaps from an African ancestor and a Caucasian ancestor - then equality becomes difficult to justify. Following this stance, we use inclusive language in this thesis except only when the reference is to creation and emphasis is on the philosophical basis of unity and equality of the entire human race.
[3] To elaborate, each individual is made responsible for self provision and also made severally and jointly liable to take care of those who are unable to manage.
[4] For Islamic perspective on human psyche, see Ansari (1992).
[5] English translation of the Holy Qur’an comes direct from either The Holy Qur'an: English Translation of the Meanings and Commentary, trans. Allama Abdullah Yusuf Ali or The Meaning of the Glorious Qur'an, trans. Mohammed Marmaduke Pickthall. (See bibliography for details).
[6] Hadith: Most Hadith quoted in the thesis are taken from the relevant books stored in The Alim for Windows Release 4.5 (1986). ISL Software Corporation, USA and Canada.
[7] Allah's Apostle said, "No child is born except on al-fitra [al-Islam] and then his parents … [turn him away from that cast]. Then he recited Qur’an 30:30 ... (Sahih Al-Bukhari (Hadith, 6.298))
[8] Traditions from the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) explain that no Messenger shall come between him and the second coming of Jesus Christ (pbuh).
[9] Behold! in the creation of the heavens and the earth and the alternation of night and day there are indeed Signs for men of understanding. (3: 190). And among His Signs is the creation of the heavens and the earth and the variations in your languages and your colours: verily in that are Signs for those who know. And among His Signs is the sleep that ye take by night and by day and the quest that ye (make for livelihood) out of His Bounty: verily in that are Signs for those who hearken. And among His Signs He shows you the lightning by way both of fear and of hope and He sends down rain from the sky and with it gives life to the earth after it is dead: verily in that are Signs for those who are wise. (30:22-4). It is He Who made the sun to be a shining glory and the moon to be a light and measured out stages for her: that ye might know the number of years and the count (of time). … (Thus) doth He explain his Signs in detail for those who understand. (10:05). It is not permitted to the Sun to catch up the Moon nor can the Night outstrip the Day: each (just) swims along in (its own) orbit (according to Law). (36:40). Do ye not see that Allah has subjected to your (use) all things in the heavens and on earth and has made His bounties flow to you in exceeding measure (both) seen and unseen? Yet there are among men those who dispute about Allah without knowledge and without guidance and without a Book to enlighten them! (31:20)
[10] Perhaps the closest concept to ‘governance’ in Arabic is al-hakimiya, which in its connotations goes beyond the procedural view of governance to identify the blueprint of a higher moral social order to which all decision making structures or ‘authority’ ought to submit, if they believed that peace in its outer and inner manifestations could be achieved only by surrendering one’s will to the Will of God (Bahlul, 2000). This is an illustration that some of the most commonly used categories in conventional social sciences are somehow changed and transformed when applied to societies and cultures in which they did not originate (Mumtaz Ahmad, p2).

[11] (This was Our) way with the apostles We sent before thee: thou wilt find no change in Our ways. (17:77). …So set thy purpose (O Muhammad) for religion (din: way of life) as a man by nature upright--the nature (framed) of Allah, in which He hath created man. There is no altering (the laws of) Allah's creation. That is the right religion, but most men know not. (30:30). Allah never changeth the grace He hath bestowed on any people until they first change that which is in their hearts, and (that is) because Allah is Hearer, Knower (8:53). … had it not been for Allah's repelling some men by means of others, cloisters and churches and oratories and mosques, wherein the name of Allah is oft mentioned, would assuredly have been pulled down. … (22:40). And mischief has appeared on land and sea because of what the hands of men have earned that (Allah) may give them a taste of some of their deeds in order that they may turn back (from evil). (30:41). He can cause them to perish because of the (evil) that (the men) have earned: but much doth He forgive. (42:34).
[12] Say: He is able to send punishment upon you from above you or from beneath your feet, or to bewilder you with dissension and make you taste the tyranny one of another. See how We display the revelations so that they may understand. (6:65). And take not your oaths to practice deception between yourselves with the result that someone's foot may slip after it was firmly planted; and ye may have to taste the evil (consequences) of having hindered (men) from the path of Allah and a mighty wrath descend on you. (16:94). (It is) a Scripture that is revealed unto thee (Muhammad) so let there be no heaviness in thy heart therefrom that thou mayest warn thereby, and (it is) a Reminder unto believers. (Saying) Follow (O men!) that which is sent down unto you from your Lord and follow not as friends or protectors other than Him. Little it is ye remember of admonition. How many towns have We destroyed (for their sins)? Our punishment took them on a sudden by night or while they slept for their afternoon rest. When (thus) our punishment took them no cry did they utter but this "indeed we did wrong." Then shall We question those to whom Our message was sent and those by whom We sent it. And verily We shall recount their whole story with knowledge for We were never absent (at any time or place). The balance that day will be true (to a nicety): those whose scale (of good) will be heavy will prosper. (7: 3-8). How many populations have We destroyed which were given to wrong-doing! They tumbled down on their roofs. And how many wells are lying idle and neglected and castles lofty and well-built! Do they not travel through the land so that their hearts (and mind) may thus learn wisdom and their ears may thus learn to hear? Truly it is not their eyes that are blind but their hearts which are in their breasts. (22:45-6). Many were the Ways of Life that have passed away before you: travel through the earth and see what was the end of those who rejected truth. (3:137)