Free Essay

Lagrange, Portfolio Choices

In:

Submitted By Mrpk01
Words 1438
Pages 6
DIMOSTRAZIONE TEORICA
L’ottimizzazione di un portafoglio di titoli “rischiosi” nel senso di determinazione della varianza minima) è un problema di ottimo vincolato:

T

min  2 ( R p )  x  S  x
s.v
xT  I  1


T
 E ( R p )  x  E    given


che si risolve minimizzando la funzione “Lagrangiana1”:
T

T

T

C  x  S  x  1  (1  x  I )  2  (  x  E )

La funzione C dipende da n+2 variabili:

C ( x, 1 , 2 )
 x1 
x  dove x è un vettore colonna a n componenti x   2 
 
 
x n 
1

Il metodo dei ‘moltiplicatori di Lagrange’ è utilizzato per trovare il massimo o il minimo di funzioni quando esitono dei vincoli sulle variabili. In tale metodo la lettera lambda () è utilizzata per rappresentare una variabile chiamata il
‘moltiplicatore di Lagrange’. Il ‘moltiplicatore di Lagrange’ , è trattato come una variabile indipendente e permette di scrivere la funzione Lagrangiana:

F ( x, y,  )  f ( x, y)    g ( x, y)
Dove z = f(x, y) è la funzione obiettivo e g(x, y) = 0 è il vincolo.
Per esempio, volendo massimizzare o minimizzare una funzione z = f(x, y) soggetta al vincolo g(x, y) = 0, si eseguiranno i seguenti step:
Step1: determinazione funzione Lagrangiana

F ( x, y,  )  f ( x, y)    g ( x, y)
Step2: determinazione di ciascuna derivata parziale Fx, Fy, F, a condizione che esistano.
Step3: risoluzione del sistema di 3 equazioni:  Fx ( x, y,  )  0


 Fy ( x, y ,  )  0

 F ( x, y ,  )  0

Step4: se f ha un minimo o un massimo relativo soggetto al vincolo g(x, y) = 0, allora i valori corrispondenti di x e y saranno sicuramente tra le soluzioni del sistema indicato nello Step3.

1

per cui, volendo minimizzarla, dobbiamo fare le n+2 derivate (parziali) rispetto alle n+2 variabili ed uguagliarle a zero. Ricaveremo allora un sistema di n+2 equazioni lineari (  2 ( R p ) è quadratica, e la derivata è lineare) in n+2 incognite.
Se si introduce un investimento (aggiuntivo, rispetto agli n investimenti in titoli rischiosi) risk-free con rendimento rf, il rendimento del portafoglio (a questo punto di n+1 titoli) sarà dato da:
T

T

E ( R p )  x  E  (1  x  I )  r f
Per cui il problema di ottimo vincolato sarà:
T

min  2 ( R p )  x  S  x

(il risk-free non influenza la varianza)

s.v
 x T  I  (1  x T  I )  1  1  1( scompare)


T
T
E ( R p )  x  E  (1  x  I )  r f   ( fissato )


La funzione “Lagrangiana” sarà quindi:



T

T

T

C  x  S  x      x  E  (1  x  I )  r f



Tale funzione dipende da n+1 variabili:

C ( x,  ) dove x è un vettore colonna a n componenti.
Derivando rispetto alle n+1 variabili si ha:



T
C
 2x  S    E  rf
x



T
T
C
   x  E  (1  x  I )  r f


Eguagliando a zero tali derivate (parziali) si ha il seguente sistema di equazioni:





2 x T  S    E  r  0 f 

T
T
  x  E  (1  x  I )  r f  0


2

Poiché non serve esplicitare e determinare il valore di , ci si può limitare al sistema di n equazioni nelle n+1 incognite ( x e 




T



2 x  S    E  rf  0 da cui:



T

x S 

2

E  r  f e ponendo: z 2



x

T

si ha:



S  z  E  rf



da cui:



z  S 1  E  r f



Se standardizziamo:

2 zi 

n

z i 1

i

 n xi



2

 x i 1

i

xi n x i 1

i

 x1 
x 
2
Troviamo il portafoglio desiderato: x   
 
 
x n 
RICERCA DEL PORTAFOGLIO OTTIMO CON IL MODELLO SINGOLO INDICE
Il sistema di equazioni:



S  z  E  rf



ricordando che:

3

  12  1, 2

2
2

S   2,1
 3,1  3, 2
 n ,1  n , 2


 1,3 ....
 2,3 .....
 32 ......
 n ,3

 1,n 

 2,n 

 3, n 
2
n 


può essere scritto:

n

z i   i2   z j   i , j  Ei  r f

per i = 1, 2, ……,n

j 1 j i

Nel modello Singolo Indice sappiamo che:
^

1) R i ,s   i   i  RMs   i ,s con le assunzioni (da verificare empiricamente):
2) E ( i )  0 per ogni titolo i = 1, 2, ……,n

E ( i2 )  E i  E ( i )   2i
2

(varianza dell’errore)

3) cov( i , RM )  0
4) cov( i ,  j )  E ( i   j )  0
La 1) quando non c’è la necessità di indicare il periodo ‘s’ può essere scritta:
^

R i   i   i  RM   i

e inoltre:

^

E ( R i )   i   i  E ( RM )

a)
^

E ( R i )  E ( R i )  E ( i   i  RM   i )   i   i  E ( RM )
b)
^

 ( Ri )  E  Ri  E ( Ri )


2

^

2

2



 E  i   i  RM   i   i   i  E ( RM ) =


2



 E  i   i RM  E ( RM ) =



4

2
 2

2
 E  i   i RM  E ( RM )  2   i   i RM  E ( RM ) =



2

 E ( i ) 2   i2  E RM  E ( RM )  2   i  E i  RM  E ( RM ) =
 

 cov( i , RM )

2
=  2i   i2   M

per i = 1, 2, ……., n

c)




 ij  E  Ri  E ( Ri )   R j  E ( R j )  =

 

^

^



 








 E i   i  RM   i   i   i  E ( RM )  j   j  RM   j   j   j  E ( RM ) =



 E  i  RM  E ( RM )   i   j  RM  E ( RM )   j  = sviluppando il prodotto e facendo il valore atteso di ciascun termine si ottiene:

 i   j  E  RM  E ( RM )  i  E  j   RM  E ( RM )    j  E  i   RM  E ( RM )   E ( i   j ) =
2

0 assunzione 3

0 assunzione 3

0 assunzione 4

2
= i   j  M

La varianza dell’errore

 2

i

può essere stimata attraverso la varianza residua:

2



2e i ^


 E  Ri  R i   valore medio del quadrato delle differenze tra valori effettivi Ri e valori



^

teorici (perequati) R i .
Quindi:
^


 Ris  R is 


 s 1 m m

 i2e

2

‘m’ sono le osservazioni

Il sistema di equazioni:

n

z i   i2   z j   i , j  Ei  r f

per i = 1, 2, ……,n

j 1 j i

diventa:
5

n

2
2
= z i  ( i2e   i2   M )   z j   i   j   M  Ei  r f = j 1 j i

n

2
2
= z i i2e  z i  i2   M   i   M   z j   j  Ei  r f = j 1 j i

= z i



n


  i   M  z i  i   z j  j   Ei  r f = j 1

 j i



2e i 2

n

2
= z i i2e   i   M   z j  j  Ei  r f

sempre per i = 1, 2, …..n

j 1

da cui: n 2
Ei  r f   i   M   z j  j j 1

zi 

per i = 1, 2, …..n

 i2e

cioè:
Ei  r f

zi 



 i2e

i  2

n

  z j  j per i = 1, 2, ……n

M

 i2e

j 1

moltiplichiamo ambo i membri per i vari  j e ne facciamo la somma:

n

n

 zi  j   j 1

E j  rf

j 1

n

j 

 2e j j 1

 j2   2

M

 2e j n

z j j j 1

otteniamo: n n

z  j 1

i

E j  rf

j 1

 2e j  j 

n

1  j 1

j

 j2   2

M



2e j j

e quindi:

6

n

E j  rf

j 1

 2e j 

n

z 



j

i

j

n

 j2

j 1

j 1

 2e j 1 M  
2

Sostituendo questo risultato nella relazione: zi 

Ei  r f

 i2e



i  2

M

 i2e

n

  z j  j per i = 1, 2, ……n j 1

si ha: n zi 

Ei  r f

 i2e



i  2

M

 i2e

E j  rf

j 1

 2e j 


j

n

 j2

j 1

 2e j 1 M  
2

da cui, ponendo: n C M 




E j  rf

j 1

2



2e j n

n

 j2

j 1

=

 2e j 1 M  
2

E j  rf

j 1

 2e j 1

n

 j2

j 1

 2e j 

j

2

M



j e (R/V)i =

Ei  r f

i

si ricava, finalmente:

zi 

i
 R / V i  C  
2e
i

dove:
R/V = Reward to Volatility
Anche qui si standardizza e si trova il portafoglio:

xi 

zi n z i 1

i

con
T

E ( Rp )  x  E

7

T

 2 (R p )  x  S   x indicando con S  :
  12

2
 2 1 M

S 
2
  3 1 M
 n 1 2
M


 1  2 2
2
2
 3  2 2
 n  2 2
M

M

M

1  3 2 ........ 1  n 2 

 2  3 2 .....  2  n 2 

 32 ......
 3  n 2 
2
 n  3 2
n 

M

M

M

M

M

M

8

Similar Documents

Premium Essay

The Q Theory of Investmen

...McDonald / J Zhejiang Univ SCI 2004 5(5):499-508 499 Journal of Zhejiang University SCIENCE ISSN 1009-3095 http://www.zju.edu.cn/jzus E-mail: jzus@zju.edu.cn The Q theory of investment, the capital asset pricing model, and asset valuation: a synthesis MCDONALD John F. (College of Business Administration, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, USA) E-mail: mcdonald@uic.edu Received Feb. 23, 2004; revision accepted Mar. 6, 2004 Abstract: The paper combines Tobin’s Q theory of real investment with the capital asset pricing model to produce a new and relatively simple procedure for the valuation of real assets using the income approach. Applications of the new method are provided. Key words: Investment theory, Asset pricing, Appraisal Document code: A CLC number: F832.48 INTRODUCTION This paper combines the economic theory of real investment and the standard financial model of asset pricing to produce a method for the valuation of real assets; and intentionally uses relatively simple versions of these two theories to link economics, finance, and appraisal. Numerical examples using data on real estate assets illustrate the valuation method. The Q theory of investment, introduced by James Tobin (1969), is popularly accepted theory of real investment hypothesized to be a positive function of Q, defined as the ratio of the market value to the replacement cost of capital. Standard presentation of the theory, such as that of Romer (1996), shows that Q is the...

Words: 3076 - Pages: 13

Premium Essay

Betting Against Beta

...Betting Against Beta Andrea Frazzini and Lasse H. Pedersen* This draft: October 9, 2011 Abstract. We present a model with leverage and margin constraints that vary across investors and time. We find evidence consistent with each of the model’s five central predictions: (1) Since constrained investors bid up high-beta assets, high beta is associated with low alpha, as we find empirically for U.S. equities, 20 international equity markets, Treasury bonds, corporate bonds, and futures; (2) A betting-against-beta (BAB) factor, which is long leveraged lowbeta assets and short high-beta assets, produces significant positive risk-adjusted returns; (3) When funding constraints tighten, the return of the BAB factor is low; (4) Increased funding liquidity risk compresses betas toward one; (5) More constrained investors hold riskier assets. * Andrea Frazzini is at AQR Capital Management, Two Greenwich Plaza, Greenwich, CT 06830, e-mail: andrea.frazzini@aqr.com; web: http://www.econ.yale.edu/~af227/ . Lasse H. Pedersen is at New York University, AQR, NBER, and CEPR, 44 West Fourth Street, NY 10012-1126; e-mail: lpederse@stern.nyu.edu; web: http://www.stern.nyu.edu/~lpederse/. We thank Cliff Asness, Aaron Brown, John Campbell, Kent Daniel, Gene Fama, Nicolae Garleanu, John Heaton (discussant), Michael Katz, Owen Lamont, Michael Mendelson, Mark Mitchell, Matt Richardson, Tuomo Vuolteenaho and Robert Whitelaw for helpful comments and discussions as well as seminar participants...

Words: 29988 - Pages: 120

Free Essay

Suntory

...places it among the world's top drinks companies. Whiskey remains the company's strongest product area--Suntory is credited with introducing Scotch-style whiskey to Japan--and production of the group's 18 different bottled blends and single malts are concentrated at its Yamazaki Valley and Hakushu distilleries. The company also produces a number of other alcohol varieties, such as the melon-flavored liqueur Midori, and the distilled alcohol, Shochu. Suntory also acts as distributor for a long list of international brands in Japan, including Beefeater, Courvoisier, Jack Daniels, Campari, and Drambuie among nearly 150 brands. In addition to its Japanese operations, Suntory manages Scotland's Morrison Bowmore Distillers, France's Chateau Lagrange and Chateau Beychevelle, and Germany's Weingut Robert Weil. In the United States, Suntory operates Pepsi Bottling Ventures LLC, and is that country's third largest mineral water distributor through subsidiary Suntory Water and brands including Hinckley & Schmidt. Other...

Words: 2564 - Pages: 11

Premium Essay

Operation Management

...Chapter one 1.1 Introduction For many manufacturers the task of meeting the ever rising demand and customer expectations and lowering production cost and maximizing profit in an environment of more products, more complexity, more choice and competition is placing great stress on the effectiveness of their planning of activities in the product kind. Organizations have already adopted solutions with varying degrees of planning and scheduling capabilities. Yet, operations executive acknowledge that these same systems are becoming out dated, lacking the speed, flexibility and responsiveness to manage their increasing complex production environment. Optimization techniques are applied to find out whether resources available are effectively utilized in order to achieve optimum profit from the activities of the firm. There should be consistency in the use of various resources and the mix should be such that it brings down the cost for ensuring profit. Therefore, it is the duty of the management to exercise control over the resources and to see that the resources are effectively utilized. Similarly, organizations in general are involved in manufacturing a variety of products to cater the needs of the society and to maximize the profit. While doing so, they need to be familiar with different combinations of product mix which will maximize the profit. Or alternatively minimize the cost. The techniques such as ratio analysis, correlation and regression analyses, variance analysis...

Words: 2742 - Pages: 11

Premium Essay

Mktg

...(promotional spending, pricing, salesforce deployment, etc.) within the context of any organization where other factors are assumed constant. For the most part, such approaches are 'bottom-up', and closely akin to the operational philosophy of traditional ORIMS. Consider, in contrast, a large organization with several business divisions and several product lines within each division. Marketing plays a number of roles throughout that organization. At the organizational level, marketing can provide both perspectives and information to help management decide on what the mission of the corporation should be, what the opportunities of the organization might be, what strategies for growth it might have, and how it might develop and manage its portfolio of businesses. The resulting corporate policies provide guidelines fordevelopment of strategy at each business division. And, at the lowest level, the managers of each product and/or market within each division develop their own marketing strategies within the context of the policies and constraints developed at divisional levels. We use the term strategic management process to describe the steps taken at the corporate and divisional level to develop market-driven strategies for organizational survival and growth, while we use the term sfrategic marketing process to refer to the parallel steps taken at the product and/or market level to develop...

Words: 8617 - Pages: 35

Premium Essay

Econometrics

...A Guide to Modern Econometrics 2nd edition Marno Verbeek Erasmus University Rotterdam A Guide to Modern Econometrics A Guide to Modern Econometrics 2nd edition Marno Verbeek Erasmus University Rotterdam Copyright  2004 John Wiley & Sons Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex PO19 8SQ, England Telephone (+44) 1243 779777 Email (for orders and customer service enquiries): cs-books@wiley.co.uk Visit our Home Page on www.wileyeurope.com or www.wiley.com All Rights Reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning or otherwise, except under the terms of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 or under the terms of a licence issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency Ltd, 90 Tottenham Court Road, London W1T 4LP, UK, without the permission in writing of the Publisher. Requests to the Publisher should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex PO19 8SQ, England, or emailed to permreq@wiley.co.uk, or faxed to (+44) 1243 770620. This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information in regard to the subject matter covered. It is sold on the understanding that the Publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services. If professional advice or other expert assistance is required,...

Words: 194599 - Pages: 779

Free Essay

Math Ib Hl

...Mathematics HL First examinations 2008 b DIPLOMA PROGRAMME MATHEMATICS HL First examinations 2008 International Baccalaureate Organization Buenos Aires Cardiff Geneva New York Singapore Diploma Programme Mathematics HL First published in September 2006 International Baccalaureate Organization Peterson House, Malthouse Avenue, Cardiff Gate Cardiff, Wales GB CF23 8GL United Kingdom Phone: + 44 29 2054 7777 Fax: + 44 29 2054 7778 Web site: www.ibo.org c International Baccalaureate Organization 2006 The International Baccalaureate Organization (IBO) was established in 1968 and is a non-profit, international educational foundation registered in Switzerland. The IBO is grateful for permission to reproduce and/or translate any copyright material used in this publication. Acknowledgments are included, where appropriate, and, if notified, the IBO will be pleased to rectify any errors or omissions at the earliest opportunity. IBO merchandise and publications in its official and working languages can be purchased through the IB store at http://store.ibo.org. General ordering queries should be directed to the sales and marketing department in Cardiff. Phone: +44 29 2054 7746 Fax: +44 29 2054 7779 E-mail: sales@ibo.org Printed in the United Kingdom by Antony Rowe Ltd, Chippenham, Wiltshire. 5007 CONTENTS INTRODUCTION 1 NATURE OF THE SUBJECT 3 AIMS 6 OBJECTIVES 7 SYLLABUS OUTLINE 8 SYLLABUS DETAILS 9 ASSESSMENT OUTLINE 53 ASSESSMENT DETAILS ...

Words: 17566 - Pages: 71

Free Essay

Cardinalist

...HAL R. VARIAN 1 NORTON To my parents Copyright @ 1992, 1984, 1978 by W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. All rights reserved Printed in the United States of America THIRD EDITION Library o Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data f Varian, Hal R. Mlcroeconon~lc analysis / Hal R. Varian. -- 3rd ed. p. an Includes blbllographlcal references and index. 1. Mlcroeconomlcs. 1. Title. HB172.V35 1992 338.5--dc20 ISBN 0-393-95735-7 W. W. Norton & Company, Inc., 500 Fifth Avenue, New York, N.Y. 10110 W. W. Norton & Company, Ltd., 10 Coptic Street, London WClA 1PU CONTENTS PREFACE 1 Technology Measurement of inputs and outputs 1 Specification of technology 2 Example: Input requzrement set Example: Isoquant Example: Shortrun productzon posszbzlztzes set Example: Pt-oductzon functzon Example: Transformatzon functzon Example: Cobb-Douglas technology Example: Leontzef technology Activity analysis 5 Monotonic technologies 6 Convex technologies 7 Regular technologies 9 Parametric representations of technology 10 The technical rate of substitution 11 Example: T R S for a Cobb-Douglas technology The elasticity of substitution 13 Example: The elastzczty of substztutzon for the Cobb-Douglas productzon functzon Returns to scale 14 Example: Returns to scale and the Cobb-Douglas technology Homogeneous and homothetic technologies 17 Example: The CES productzon functzon Exercises 21 2 Profit Maximization . Profit maximization 25 Difficulties 28 Example:...

Words: 149960 - Pages: 600

Premium Essay

Student

...Are TIPS the “Real” Deal?: A Conditional Assessment of their Role in a Nominal Portfolio Delroy M. Hunter Dept of Finance College of Business Administration University of South Florida Tampa, FL 33620 Dhunter@coba.usf.edu Tele: (813) 974 6330 Fax: (813) 974 3030 David P. Simon∗ Dept of Finance Bentley College Waltham, MA 02452 Dsimon@bentley.edu. Tele: (781) 891 2489 Fax: (781) 891 2982 July 1, 2002 ∗ Corresponding author. We thank the Hughey Center for Financial Services at Bentley College for the data and the second author thanks Bentley College for a summer research grant. The usual disclaimer applies. Are TIPS the “Real” Deal?: A Conditional Assessment of their Role in a Nominal Portfolio Abstract This paper documents predictable time-variation in the real return beta of U.S. Treasury inflation protected securities (TIPS) and in the Sharpe ratios of both indexed and conventional bonds. The conditional mean and volatility of both bonds and their conditional correlation are first estimated from predetermined variables. These estimates are then used to compute conditional real return betas and Sharpe ratios. The time-variation in real return betas and the correlation between TIPS and nominal bonds coincides with major developments in the fixed income market. One implication of this predictability is that portfolio managers can assess more efficiently the risk of investing in TIPS versus conventional bonds. Conditional Sharpe ratios indicate that over...

Words: 13262 - Pages: 54

Free Essay

Finance Notes

...Lecture Notes in Finance 1 (MiQE/F, MSc course at UNISG) Paul Söderlind1 14 December 2011 1 University of St. Gallen. Address: s/bf-HSG, Rosenbergstrasse 52, CH-9000 St. Gallen, Switzerland. E-mail: Paul.Soderlind@unisg.ch. Document name: Fin1MiQEFAll.TeX Contents 1 Mean-Variance Frontier 1.1 Portfolio Return: Mean, Variance, and the Effect of Diversification 1.2 Mean-Variance Frontier of Risky Assets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3 Mean-Variance Frontier of Riskfree and Risky Assets . . . . . . . 1.4 Examples of Portfolio Weights from MV Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 4 9 19 22 A A Primer in Matrix Algebra 24 B A Primer in Optimization 27 2 . . . . . . . . 31 31 32 37 39 42 45 46 47 3 Risk Measures 3.1 Symmetric Dispersion Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2 Downside Risk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3 Empirical Return Distributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 54 56 67 4 CAPM 4.1 Portfolio Choice with Mean-Variance Utility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 70 Index Models 2.1 The Inputs to a MV Analysis . 2.2 Single-Index Models . . . . . 2.3 Estimating Beta . . . . . . . . 2.4 Multi-Index Models . . . . . . 2.5 Principal Component Analysis 2.6 Estimating Expected Returns . 2.7 Estimation on Subsamples . . 2.8 Robust Estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. .. . ...

Words: 69445 - Pages: 278

Premium Essay

Curriculum Source References

...Curriculum Source References The following references were used in the CFA Institute-produced publications Quantitative Methods for Investment Analysis, Analysis of Equity Investments: Valuation, and Managing Investment Portfolios: A Dynamic Process. Ackerman, Carl, Richard McEnally, and David Ravenscraft. 1999. “The Performance of Hedge Funds: Risk, Return, and Incentives.” Journal of Finance. Vol. 54, No. 3: 833–874. ACLI Survey. 2003. The American Council of Life Insurers. Agarwal, Vikas and Narayan Naik. 2000. “Performance Evaluation of Hedge Funds with OptionBased and Buy-and-Hold Strategies.” Working Paper, London Business School. Ali, Paul Usman and Martin Gold. 2002. “An Appraisal of Socially Responsible Investments and Implications for Trustees and Other Investment Fiduciaries.” Working Paper, University of Melbourne. Almgren, Robert and Neil Chriss. 2000/2001. “Optimal Execution of Portfolio Transactions.” Journal of Risk. Vol. 3: 5–39. Altman, Edward I. 1968. “Financial Ratios, Discriminant Analysis and the Prediction of Corporate Bankruptcy.” Journal of Finance. Vol. 23: 589–699. Altman, Edward I. and Vellore M. Kishore. 1996. “Almost Everything You Wanted to Know about Recoveries on Defaulted Bonds.” Financial Analysts Journal. Vol. 52, No. 6: 57−63. Altman, Edward I., R. Haldeman, and P. Narayanan. 1977. “Zeta Analysis: A New Model to Identify Bankruptcy Risk of Corporations.” Journal of Banking and Finance. Vol. 1: 29−54. Ambachtsheer, Keith, Ronald Capelle, and...

Words: 12603 - Pages: 51

Free Essay

The Money Multiplier

...Money and Banks: Some Theory and Empirical Evidence for Germany Oliver Holtem¨ ller∗ o November 2002 Abstract This paper contributes to the analysis of the money supply process in Germany during the period of monetary targeting by the Bundesbank from 1975-1998. While the standard money multiplier approach assumes that the money stock is determined by the money multiplier and the monetary base it is argued here that both the money stock and the monetary base are determined endogenously by the optimizing behavior of commercial banks and private agents like households and firms. An industrial organization style model for the money creating sector that describes the money creation process is developed assuming that the main policy variable of the central bank is the money market interest rate. A vector error correction model for the nominal money stock, the monetary base, nominal income, short-term and long-term interest rates, and the required reserve rate is specified, and the interaction between these variables is analyzed empirically. The evidence contradicts the money multiplier approach and supports the presented model of the money creating sector. JEL Classification: C32, E51, E52 Keywords: Industrial organization approach to banking theory, money multiplier, endogenous money, vector error correction model ∗ This paper is partially based upon the second chapter of the author’s doctoral dissertation (Vector au- toregressive analysis and monetary policy, Aachen:...

Words: 9924 - Pages: 40

Free Essay

Investements

...it more practical to use some of the listed symbols to represent a different concept. In other instances, clarity required making the symbolic representation more precise (e.g., by being more specific as to the time dimension of an interest rate). Roman Alphabet a Amount invested in the risky asset; in Chapter 14, fraction of wealth invested in the risky asset or portfolio AT Transpose of the matrix (or vector)A c Consumption; in Chapter 14 only, consumption is represented by C, while c represents ln C ck Consumption of agent k in state of nature θ θ CE Certainty equivalent CA Price of an American call option CE Price of a European call option d Dividend rate or amount ∆ Number of shares in the replicating portfolio (Chapter xx E The expectations operator ek Endowment of agent k in state of nature θ θ f Futures position (Chapter 16); pf Price of a futures contract (Chapter 16) F, G Cumulative distribution functions associated with densities: f, g Probability density functions K The strike or exercise price of an option K(˜) Kurtosis of the random variable x x ˜ L A lottery L Lagrangian m Pricing kernel M The market portfolio k M Uθ Marginal utility of agent k in state θ p Price of an arbitrary asset P Measure of Absolute Prudence q Arrow-Debreu price qb Price of risk-free discount bond, occasionally denoted prf e q Price of equity rf Rate of return on a risk-free asset Rf Gross rate of return on a risk-free asset r ˜ Rate of return on a risky asset ˜ R Gross...

Words: 166919 - Pages: 668

Premium Essay

Quantitative Easing

...Quantitative Easing and the American Economy: How Saving is Saving Us From Inflation Mark Nasca „12 Colgate University April 30th, 2012 Abstract Following the Great Recession (2007-09), the Federal Reserve (Fed) utilized monetary policy instruments that had never been used in previous economic recoveries. With interest rates near zero, the Fed undertook rounds of quantitative easing (QE), a non-standard policy, in an attempt to stimulate the economy and help bring the nation out of the recession. In this study, the theoretical model presented by Nasca (2011) will be expanded to show that price level can be stabilized when saving and the money supply increase in tandem, all else constant. Following the theoretical discussion, this study will then utilize an intertemporal model with heterogeneous agents to describe the U.S. economy in order to analyze factors affecting consumer saving decisions when QE policies are enacted following an economic crisis. The goal of this model is to show how the saving decision is affected by the enactment of QE in a crisis environment, given the lower prevailing interest rate scenario and elevated levels of economic instability. This study finds that the increase in saving rate observed in the unfavorable rate environment can potentially be attributed to the increased uncertainty in future income expectations and heightened levels of risk aversion that are characteristic of a post-crisis economy. This serves as a theoretical justification for...

Words: 13053 - Pages: 53

Premium Essay

Macroeconomics

...Macroeconomic Theory Macroeconomic Theory A Dynamic General Equilibrium Approach Michael Wickens Princeton University Press Princeton and Oxford Copyright © 2008 by Princeton University Press Published by Princeton University Press, 41 William Street, Princeton, New Jersey 08540 In the United Kingdom: Princeton University Press, 3 Market Place, Woodstock, Oxfordshire OX20 1SY All Rights Reserved ? A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book has been composed in Times and typeset by T&T Productions Ltd, London Printed on acid-free paper press.princeton.edu Printed in the United States of America 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 ∞ Contents Preface 1 Introduction 1.1 Dynamic General Equilibrium versus Traditional Macroeconomics 1.2 Traditional Macroeconomics 1.3 Dynamic General Equilibrium Macroeconomics 1.4 This Book The Centralized Economy 2.1 Introduction 2.2 The Basic Dynamic General Equilibrium Closed Economy 2.3 Golden Rule Solution 2.3.1 The Steady State 2.3.2 The Dynamics of the Golden Rule 2.4 Optimal Solution 2.4.1 Derivation of the Fundamental Euler Equation 2.4.2 Interpretation of the Euler Equation 2.4.3 Intertemporal Production Possibility Frontier 2.4.4 Graphical Representation of the Solution 2.4.5 Static Equilibrium Solution 2.4.6 Dynamics of the Optimal Solution 2.4.7 Algebraic Analysis of the Saddlepath Dynamics 2.5 Real-Business-Cycle Dynamics 2.5.1 The Business Cycle 2.5.2 Permanent Technology Shocks 2.5.3 Temporary...

Words: 188884 - Pages: 756