This paper will discuss developmentally appropriate methodologies in teaching language and literacy to young children across a developmental curriculum. Also to be discussed will be the aspects/knowledge of language, language diversity and Theoretical Perspectives. There is now evidence that it is never too early to teach a child. Through research it has been discovered that the infant even before he/she is born can hear sound and as we know that is how we acquire language, by hearing spoken words. According to Otto (2010), language development begins when language speakers assume that an infant is a participating partner in conversational settings, even though it is months before the child is able to begin using conventional words. In an article written by Dr. Carmelita Lomeo-Smrtic,Ph.D, she wrote that “Teaching children to become literate members of society is a daunting task, often relegated to the elementary teacher. However, research on teaching children to become literate suggests that this process must begin well before kindergarten. Research suggests that children are primed for learning language in utero. Also from the Otto text, “research on children’s perception of speech and the development of the auditory system in utero has determined that the fetus can perceive sounds beginning with the 25th week of gestation and at the 35th week a fetus’s hearing acuity is at a level similar to an adult’s (2010). Knowing all of this has prompted mothers and some father’s to read to their unborn infant and even “talk” to him/her. Documented research suggests that infants can distinguish their mother’s voice from the voice of others-including other female voices a first few days after birth (Otto, 2010).
It has been established that children begin learning at a very early age, even though they do not begin speaking words for many months. Now we will move on to speak about how they learn. There are five aspects or knowledge’s of language.-Phonetic, Semantic, Syntactic, Morphemic, and Pragmatic. Phonetic language is the ability to understand sound/symbol relations and sound patterns represented in language, for example the /p/makes the sound “pa”, as in “p-i.e.” A child that possesses semantic knowledge understands word meanings and vocabulary. There are not many toddlers that do not know what the McDonald’s logo means-even if it is not on the McDonald’s restaurant! Syntactic knowledge is the understanding of how words can be combined in meaningful sentences, phrases, or utterances, such as linking an action with an object (hit ball), or an agent to an object (John’s book), etc. Morphemic knowledge is the knowledge of word structure or how words are composed of one or more meaningful linguistic units. A child with this knowledge can identify more accurately what he wants (or does not want), such as instead of, “I sit,” they may say “I want to sit in that red chair.” Pragmatic knowledge involves all four of the other knowledge aspects. Otto points out that “Through our social-cultural interactions, we learn when to speak; when not to speak; what to talk about with whom; and when, where, and in what manner to speak. This knowledge or awareness of how to use language differently in different settings and situations represents pragmatic knowledge (Otto, 2010). According to the free encyclopedia, Wikipedia, there are four definitions for the word methodology. The first being, “the analysis of the principles of methods, rules, and postulates employed by a discipline.” The second, “the systematic study of methods that are, can be, or have been applied within a discipline.” Third, A documented process for management of projects that contains procedures, definitions and explanations of techniques used to collect, store, analyze and present information as part of a research process in a given discipline, and fourth the study or description of methods. With these definitions in mind we will discuss developmentally appropriate literacy practices for young children methods for learning language. In an article released by “Educator’s Voice” written by afore mentioned Dr. Lomeo-Smrtic she talks about an “early childhood practitioner’s guide to simple, effective and based literacy strategies for home, day-care, and preschool settings.” She suggests well-designed literacy centers, which includes both fiction and nonfiction books at varying levels of difficulty and suggests that books be rotated weekly. Literacy centers also include writing and listening center, with a variety of supplies (including pencils, crayons, plain paper, washable markers, worksheets, and coloring sheets) to accommodate the novice writer and the more sophisticated writer. The alphabet with both upper and lower case letters should also be posted in several areas of the classroom. The listening center should include books on tape and even the teacher or a familiar voice reading a book. Blank tapes and a recorder could be provided so the child can record their own voice and playback. A flannel board with flannel picture pieces could be provided to encourage the child to retell a story. Fiction and non-fiction books that support the thematic or conceptual study should be part of every center. For example in the art area there should be books with pictures of the theme, so children can create their own artistic expression (April 21,2008). Otto writes, that “a word wall is a visual display of words that have been written on cards or large sheets of chart paper and mounted on a classroom wall. The visual display encourages children to focus on letter-sound connections and spelling patterns of words. Both sources suggest several story read-aloud daily and using open-ended questions that cause the children to get involved in both the literary process and the story. Having frequent conversations throughout the day is another method of encouraging language development and by asking questions it can get children to thinking and help them to better express themselves. Literacy can be built into every activity, whether it is at the sand table or the water table. Kids should be provided with several repeated phonemic awareness activities, fun and silly rhyming words like “Silly Susie by the Seashore”, and the list could go on and on. The many methods of learning language also include everyday living. The Reading rockets article says, “To teach in developmentally appropriate ways, teachers must understand both the continuum of reading and writing development and children’s individual and cultural variations. Teachers must recognize when variation is within the typical range and when intervention is necessary, because early intervention is more effective and less costly than later remediation (1998).

Dr.Carmelita Lomeo-Smrtic, Ph.d of Mohawk Community College writes, “Developmentally appropriate practice suggests that developmental skills and abilities of the child are used as the platform for teaching literacy. The age and the ability of the child are considered, and then age-appropriate opportunities are provided to the child, with feedback and practice (Educators Voice, 2008). Also from Reading rockets article on “Learning to Read and Write: Developmentally Appropriate Practices for Young Children” write that IRA (International Reading Association) and NAEYC (National Association for the Education of Young Children) believe that goals and expectations for young children’s achievement in reading and writing should be developmentally appropriate, that is, challenging but achievable, with sufficient adult support. Otto writes, “The concept of developmental appropriateness is based on the recognition that learning activities within specific contexts (e.g., home, school) should reflect children’s developmental needs: physical, emotional-social, and cognitive-linguistic. In other words developmental appropriateness means that the right experiences are provided at the right time. Over the years there have been many theories and perspectives and many psychologist, philosophers, and theorist. They all seem to have an answer to the best way of educating young children. The theoretical perspective discussed here will be the Interactionist Perspective. Wikipedia describes it as consisting of two components. This perspective is a combination of both the natives and behaviorist theories (will discuss later). The first part, the information-processing theories, tests through the connectionist model, using statistics. From these theories, we see that the brain is excellent at detecting patterns. The second part of the Interactionist Perspective is the social interactionist theories. These theories suggest that there is a native desire to understand others as well as being understood by others. Otto states that the early work of Lev Vygotsky emphasized the role of social interaction in language development. Vygotsky’s basic premise was that language development is influenced by society in which individual lives: “higher mental functions are socially formed and culturally transmitted.” Speech has social origins. It develops in situations where people are interacting in a communicative context (Otto, 2010, p.33). The Behaviorist Theory proposed by B.F. Skinner suggests that language is learned through reinforcement and imitation. The Natives Theory, proposed by Noam Chomsky, argues that language is a unique human accomplishment. Chomsky says that all children have what is called a Language Acquisition Device (LAD) that allows children to produce consistent once vocabulary is learned. Bloom’s Taxonomy (named for Benjamin Bloom), which is a classification of learning objectives, gives a clear picture of the steps a child goes through in learning language. Bloom’s Taxonomy divides educational objectives into three “domains”: Cognitive (knowing/head), Affective (feeling/heart), and Psychomotor (doing/hands). As early childhood educators it is important that we are capable of serving all children and our society is under constant change. Teachers need to stay updated with the many different languages and language dialects that may enter their classroom. The following are just a few examples. There is probably a million ways to say the same phrase in the same language, because of language diversity. Listening to the “Cajun Chef” for the first time one would almost have to have a translator (he passed away in 2001). Born in Louisiana, Chef and Humorist Justin Wilson possessed that well-known Cajun dialect. His friendliness and humor graced our television sets for several years with that strong accent and his Cajun dishes. The Cajun dialect is a blend of English and French, but this is just one of many dialects. Language dialect is variations of a language that are characteristic of a particular social or geographical group. There is also the “Southern accent and the “Yankee accent.” Most southerners say “Yaw come see us!” and “I reckon I will go over yonder,” but of course to the Southerner, it is not an accent, as is with Northerners. To a southerner the northerner has what is politely referred to as a more “proper” way of speaking. Of the one with an English accent, the English would say of someone that stole a block of ice from them, “He pinched (meaning stole) my ice!, “as was with the (true) story of my new-to-the-family English Aunt (who possessed that quaint English accent till the day she died!), about her new brother-in-law, to which my grandmother asked, “Well, did you not slap him?” Then there are the cultural differences. When we teach our children at home, it is different from the way they are taught in school. Christians say grace before a meal whereas at school they may be permitted a “moment of silence.” At home children often are not corrected for not using “correct English”, but in school they most likely will be, especially if they are in an English related class. At home we teach our kids about planting seeds to teach them about the harvest of a fruit or vegetable, but in school it becomes more of a Science lesson. Language is learned in so many contexts and there are so many ways that we use it that an eight-ten page essay will only be a start. The social differences of adults and children also influence how language is used. Home and school contexts may represent different cultures, subcultures, or both. Roots & Wings author, Stacy York writes, “Schools are places of empowerment when they allow and encourage children to speak words used in their home and daily life rather than the artificial, formal, “official” language at school. Traditionally, schools have forced children to use “correct English” when they speak and write. Few teachers have been willing to recognize or learn about ethnic language. In recent years, researchers have supported the belief that ethnic dialects like Black English or ebonies are legitimate forms of English in their own right (York, 1991). So, with this in mind, teachers, prepare!
In an article written by Diane Trister Dodge for “Childcare Information Exchange” she wrote, “It wasn’t so long ago that the idea of using a written curriculum to guide the care and education of children under five was not widely accepted. It was unheard of in programs serving infants and toddlers and still controversial for programs serving preschool children. Even defining curriculum for this age group has been challenging. Dictionaries typically define curriculum as a scope and sequence for a course of study. Organizations and experts on early childhood education provide broader definitions that address all aspects of program planning for a given age group, including content, processes, context, and what teachers do. An appropriate definition for world forum participants comes from NAEYC’s new position paper on curriculum assessment and evaluation, which states that”...general curriculum is seen as the means by which a society helps learners acquire the knowledge, skills, and values that that society deems most worth having.” As has already been pointed out, “Language development begins when language speakers assume that an infant is a partner in conversational setting, even though it may be several months before the child is able to use conventional words (Otto, 2010). There are some that strongly disagree with some of the early childhood programs stating that, “The best you can say is that they’re useless,” said Alison Gopnik, a professor of psychology at the University of California, Berkeley, of the Junior Kumon enrichment program in an article in the New York Times by Kate Zernike on May 12, 2011. Though there are many that believe in it just as strongly, the parents whose children that are enrolled in the program in particular. She went so far as to compare the escalation of supplemental education with Irish elk competing to see which had the biggest antlers. “The result is that they go around tottering, unable to walk, under enormous weight of these antlers they’ve developed,” she said.”I think it’s true of American parents from high school all the way down to preschool.” The article went on to say that, “Other tutoring companies like Sylvan have also moved into the prekindergarten market. But Kumon, a Japanese import calls itself the world’s largest math and reading enrichment program, has pushed most aggressively, admitting students as young as 2. Those young students have become an increasingly important part of its business: Kumon grew by about 12 percent last year, to 250,000 students nationwide; Junior Kumon grew by more than 30 percent. In New York, where the company is colonizing storefronts like so many Starbucks, enrollment in Junior Kumon has tripled since it began opening centers in 2007” (Zernike, 2011). After a complete reading of this article, one would have to wonder what the long-term effects will be on so much learning so soon in life. It has been drilled into most early childhood educators that “learning through play,” is the best way. Three year olds learning to write numerals in sequence just do not seem to be natural, but if that child is having fun doing all of this learning at such an early age, then it is a GOOD thing. Curriculum that is developmentally appropriate will help children to understand and be excited about learning and they will have a sense of accomplishment and will want to continue to learn. Early Childhood Education Today, author George Morrison writes, “Curricula for infants and toddlers consist of all the activities and experiences they are involved in while under the direction of professionals: feeding, washing, diapering/toileting, playing, learning, and having stimulating interactions, outings, being involved with others, having conversations, participating in stimulating cognitive and language experiences. Professionals must plan the curriculum so all activities are developmentally appropriate (Morrison 2009). This paper has discussed from the time an infant hears his first sound through the early childhood years of how language is developed and factors that can influence it.

References: * Dodge, D. (2004) early childhood curriculum models (from Childcare Information Exchange) retrieved from www.childcareexchange.com

* Lomeo-Smrtic,C. (April 21,2008) An early childhood practitioners guide: developmentally appropriate literacy practices for preschool-age children Taken from Educator’s Voice Retrieved from: www.nysut.org on July 6,2011 * Morrison,G (2009) Early childhood education today (11th Edition) Pearson Education Upper Saddle River, NJ * Otto, B. (2010) Language development in early childhood (3rd Edition) Pearson Education Upper Saddle River, NJ * York,S. (1991) Roots & wings affirming culture in early childhood programs Redleaf Press St.Paul, Mn. * Zernike, K. (May 13, 2011) Fast tracking to kindergarten? From: New York Times Retrieved from www.nytimes.com