CHAPTER 6

JOB ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

CHAPTER Overview

JOB ANALYSIS AND DESIGN IS OFTEN REFERRED TO AS THE CORNERSTONE OF HRM, AND IT HAS BECOME INCREASINGLY IMPORTANT FOR LEGAL QUESTIONS RELATED TO PROMOTION AND DISCRIMINATION.

This chapter clarifies the contributions made by job analysis to an organization’s HRM program and specific activities. Furthermore, the careful planning needed and the various techniques of a job analysis program are highlighted. Finally, the importance of job analysis in the design is discussed.

CHAPTER LEARNING OBJECTIVES

AFTER READING THIS CHAPTER, STUDENTS SHOULD BE ABLE TO…

1. Define the terms job analysis, job description, and job specification.

2. Illustrate the uses that job analysis information can have in an organization’s HRM.

3. Describe four methods used to collect job analysis information.

4. Interpret job codes and information found in the Dictionary of Occupational Titles.

5. List the five core job dimensions used in job enrichment programs.

6. Compare the strengths and weaknesses of the mechanistic and motivational approaches to job design.

7. Describe the ways that job descriptions are changing as the nature of jobs changes.

KEY TERMS

|AUTONOMY |THE DEGREE TO WHICH THE JOB PROVIDES SUBSTANTIAL FREEDOM, INDEPENDENCE, AND DISCRETION|
| |TO THE INDIVIDUAL IN SCHEDULING THE WORK AND IN DETERMINING THE PROCEDURES TO BE USED |
| |IN CARRYING IT OUT. |
|COMMON METRIC QUESTIONNAIRE (CMQ) |A JOB ANALYSIS INSTRUMENT THAT INCLUDES BEHAVIORALLY ANCHORED ITEMS THAT CAN BE USED |
| |BY BOTH NONEXEMPT AND EXEMPT EMPLOYEES. |
|FEEDBACK |THE DEGREE TO WHICH CARRYING OUT THE WORK ACTIVITIES REQUIRED BY THE JOB RESULTS IN |
| |THE INDIVIDUAL’S OBTAINING DIRECT AND CLEAR INFORMATION ABOUT THE EFFECTIVENESS OF HIS|
| |OR HER PERFORMANCE. |
|FUNCTIONAL JOB ANALYSIS (FJA) |A JOB ANALYSIS METHOD THAT ATTEMPTS TO IDENTIFY WHAT A WORKER DOES IN PERFORMING A JOB|
| |IN TERMS OF DATA, PEOPLE, AND THINGS. |
|JOB |A GROUP OF POSITIONS THAT ARE SIMILAR IN THEIR DUTIES, SUCH AS COMPUTER PROGRAMMER OR |
| |COMPENSATION SPECIALIST. |
|JOB ANALYSIS |THE PROCESS OF GATHERING, ANALYZING, AND SYNTHESIZING INFORMATION ABOUT JOBS. |
|JOB ANALYSIS INFORMATION FORMAT (JAIF) |A QUESTIONNAIRE THAT PROVIDES CORE INFORMATION ABOUT A JOB, JOB DUTIES, AND JOB |
| |REQUIREMENTS. |
|JOB CHARACTERISTICS MODEL |A MODE OF JOB DESIGN BASED ON THE VIEW THAT THREE PSYCHOLOGICAL STATES TOWARD A JOB |
| |AFFECT A PERSON’S MOTIVATION AND SATISFACTION. THESE STATES ARE EXPERIENCED |
| |MEANINGFULNESS, EXPERIENCED RESPONSIBILITY, AND KNOWLEDGE OF RESULTS. A JOB’S SKILL |
| |VARIETY, IDENTITY, AND TASK SIGNIFICANCE CONTRIBUTE TO MEANINGFULNESS; AUTONOMY IS |
| |RELATED TO RESPONSIBILITY; FEEDBACK IS RELATED TO KNOWLEDGE OF RESULTS. |

Lecture OUTLINE

INTRODUCTION

• Organizations have evolved because the overall mission and objectives of most institutions are too large for any one person to accomplish. Organizations must have a systematic way to determine which employees are expected to perform which tasks. The cornerstone of an organization is the set of jobs performed by its employees

• Job analysis is vital to any HRM program and provides answers to questions such as:

□ How much time does it take to complete important tasks?

□ Which tasks are grouped together and considered a job?

□ How can a job be designed or structured so that employee performance can be enhanced?

□ What kinds of behaviors are needed to perform the job?

□ What kind of person, in terms of traits and experience, is best suited for the job?

□ How can the information acquired by a job analysis be used in the development of HRM programs?

The Vocabulary of Job Analysis

• In HR it is important to be familiar with the “lingo” used by professionals and practitioners in the field. Many of the terms of job analysis are used interchangeably by people who are unfamiliar with job analysis. The expert uses them precisely, in order to avoid confusion and misinterpretation. Precision in term usage is required by federal and state legislation.

□ Job analysis: a purposeful, systematic process for collecting information on the important work-related aspects of a job

□ Job description: the principal product of a job analysis. It represents a written summary of the job as an identifiable organizational unit. Think of it as a list of duties

□ Job specification: a written explanation of the knowledge, skills, abilities, traits, and other characteristics (KSAOs) necessary for effective performance on a given job

□ Tasks: Coordinated and aggregated series of work elements used to produce an output (e.g., a unit of production or service to a client)

□ Position: consists of the responsibilities and duties performed by an individual. There are as many positions in an organization as there are employees

□ Job: group of positions that are similar in their duties, such as computer programmer or compensation specialist

□ Job family: group of two or more jobs that have similar duties

An example at the university (using all these definitions) could take the form of:

FACULTY (as job family)

ECONOMICS PROFESSORS (as jobs),

LABOR ECONOMIST (as position)

Teaching ECON 425: Labor Economics (task)

PhD in LABOR ECONOMICS (part of the job specification)

Teaching, research, service (tri-partite duties as job description)

The whole process in developing the documentation and arriving at the final product that describes the duties, responsibilities, skills, knowledge, reporting relationships, fit in the organization along with required hours of work, pay status (exempt/non-exempt) will constitute job analysis.

The Steps in Job Analysis

• The job analysis process:

□ Step 1: provides a broad view of how each job fits into the total fabric of the organization. Organization and process charts are used

□ Step 2: encourages those involved to determine how the job analysis and job design information will be used

□ Step 3: jobs to be analyzed are selected

□ Step 4: job analysis techniques are used to collect data on the characteristics of the job, the required behaviors, and the characteristics an employee needs to perform the job

□ Step 5: develop a job description

□ Step 6: prepare a job specification

• The reason why job analysis is considered the cornerstone of the HR structure or as I refer to as the backbone of the HR body, lies in the fact that data collected is used as the foundation for virtually every other HRM activity:

□ Recruitment – you need a job description to advertise the duties of the position.

□ Selection – you need the qualification from a job specification to determine minimum qualifications.

□ Training

□ Performance evaluation

□ Compensation

□ Job design and redesign - job analysis provides the information necessary for organizing work in ways that allow employees to be both productive and satisfied

The Uses of Job Analysis

• Some believe that there is no longer even a choice about whether job analysis should be conducted

□ Guidelines and judicial recommendations regarding civil rights and EEO laws are clear

□ The question has become how to conduct a legally defensible job analysis rather than whether such an analysis should be conducted

• Job analysis plays an important role in the Uniform Guidelines on Employee Selection Procedures (1978)

□ A set of policies designed to minimize or prevent workplace discrimination practices

□ The UGESP emphasizes that job analysis should be used when validating or assessing the accuracy of organizational selection procedures

• Job analysis is:

□ Critical to assessments of discrimination under most employment-related laws

□ Linked to these laws through Supreme Court rulings

• If a job analysis is to be viewed favorable by the courts, it must:

□ Yield a thorough, clear job description

□ Assess the frequency and importance of job behaviors

□ Allow for an accurate assessment of the knowledge, skills, abilities, and other characteristics (KSAOs) required by the job

□ Clearly determine which KSAOs are important for each job duty

• Job analysis is used extensively in each of these areas:

□ Recruitment and selection

□ Training and career development

□ Compensation

□ Strategic planning

• To avoid resistance, HR managers must communicate to everyone involved:

□ Why job analyses are important

□ How the information will be used

Who Should Conduct the Job Analysis?

• Part of the planning process involves choosing the people who will conduct the analysis

□ Hire a temporary analyst from outside

□ Employ a full-time job analyst

□ Use supervisors, job incumbents, or some combination of these

• Each choice has strengths and weaknesses:, such as:

□ Job incumbents know what work is actually being done, rather than what is supposed to be done

□ Involving incumbents might increase their acceptance of any work changes resulting from the analysis

□ Incumbents tend to exaggerate the responsibilities and importance of their work

• The choice of an analyst depends on many factors, including:

□ The location and complexity of the jobs

□ How receptive incumbents are to an external analyst

□ The ultimate intended purpose of the analysis

• Regardless of who collects the information, the individuals should:

□ Thoroughly understand people, jobs, and the total organizational system

□ Have knowledge about how work should flow within the organization

The Use of Charts

• Before selecting the methods and procedures to be used in the analysis, an overview of the organization and its jobs is required

□ This overview will provide a better understanding workflow through the organization

• An organization chart presents the relationships among departments and units of the firm, as well as:

□ Line and staff functions

□ Number of vertical levels in the organization

□ Number of functional departments

□ Formal reporting relationships

• A process chart shows how a specific set of jobs are related to each other

□ Rather than showing structural relationships among job titles, this chart shows the activities and work necessary to produce a desired product or service

Methods of Data Collection

• When collecting job analysis data, these basic methods can be use separately or in some combination:

□ Observation

□ Interview

□ Questionnaires

□ Job incumbent diaries or logs

• In each method, information about the job is collected and then studied in terms of tasks completed by the job incumbent (job oriented analysis)

• A job can also be analyzed in terms of behaviors or what the job incumbent does to perform the job (work-oriented analysis)

□ Both orientations are acceptable under the Uniform Guidelines on Employee Selection Procedures if they identify job duties and behaviors that are critical to performing the job

• Because time and cost are considerations, managers must collect comparable, valid data

□ Core information is needed no matter which data collection method is used

• A job analysis information format (JAIF) can provide the core information for any job analysis method

□ This questionnaire provides a thorough picture of the job, job duties, and requirements

□ After job incumbents complete the JAIF, the answers are used to structure the data collection technique that will eventually be implemented

• Not all incumbents or their supervisors view a job in the same way

□ Collect information from a variety of incumbents: young and old, male and female, high- and low-performing

□ Do not assume that all incumbents and supervisors have the same amount of knowledge about a job

Observation

• Direct observation is used for jobs that require manual, standardized, and short-job-cycle activities (assembly-line worker, insurance filing clerk,)

□ Direct observation is not usually appropriate when the job involves significant mental activity (scientist, lawyer, mathematician)

□ This technique requires that the job analyst be trained to observe relevant job behaviors and to be as unobtrusive as possible

Interviews

• Interviewing job incumbents is often done in combination with observation

□ The most widely used technique

□ Allows the job analyst to talk with job incumbents face-to-face

– The job incumbent can ask the analyst questions – Allows the analyst to explain how the information gained will be used

• Interviews can be conducted with a single incumbent, a group of incumbents, or a supervisor who is familiar with the job

□ A structured set of questions is used so that answers from individuals or groups can be compared

• Interviews are difficult to standardize

□ Different interviewers may ask different questions

□ The same interviewer might ask different questions of different respondents

□ Information may be unintentionally distorted by the interviewer

• Interviewing costs can be high, especially if group interviews aren’t practical

Questionnaires

• Questionnaires are the least costly method for collecting information

□ It is an effective way to collect a large amount of information in a short period of time

□ A structured questionnaire includes specific questions about the job, working conditions, and equipment

□ An open-ended format permits job incumbents to use their own words and ideas to describe the job

• The format and structure of a questionnaire are debatable issues

□ There really is no best format

• Hints for making a questionnaire easier to use:

□ Keep it as short as possible

□ Explain what the questionnaire is being used for

□ Keep it simple

□ Test the questionnaire before using it

Job Incumbent Diary or Log

• The diary or log is a recording by incumbents of:

□ Job duties

□ Frequency of the duties

□ When the duties are accomplished

• Most individuals are not disciplined enough to keep such a log

□ If the log is kept properly, it provides good information from which comparisons can be made

□ This permits an examination of the routine and exceptions to job duties

• The diary or log is useful when attempting to analyze jobs that are difficult to observe

Which Method to Use?

• There is no agreement about which methods of job analysis yield the best information

□ Many experts agree that interviews should not be the sole data collection method

□ Certain methods may be better suited to a given situation than others

□ Most organizations base their choice on:

– The purpose of the analysis – Time and budget constraints

• Many organizations are turning to a multimethods job analysis approach

□ The analyst interviews incumbents and supervisors in conjunction with on-site observation

□ A task survey based on expert judgments is constructed and administered

□ A statistical analysis of the responses is conducted in order to assess their consistency and to identify any systematic variation in them

• Using a comprehensive process is relatively expensive and time-consuming

□ However, the quality of information derived from a more comprehensive approach is strongly endorsed by courts

Specific Quantitative Techniques

• Three of the more popular quantitative techniques are the:

□ Functional job analysis

□ Position analysis questionnaire

□ Management position description questionnaire

Functional Job Analysis

• Functional job analysis (FJA) is the cumulative result of almost 60 years of research on analyzing and describing jobs

□ Conceived in the late 1940s

□ Was developed as a mechanism for improving the classification of jobs in the Dictionary of Occupational Titles (DOT)

– Is used by the U.S. Employment Service for descriptive information about jobs

• DOT descriptions helped a job analyst begin to learn what was involved in a particular job

□ FJA could then be used to elaborate and more thoroughly describe the content of a job

□ The main focus of FJA was to create a common language for accurately describing a large number of jobs in ways that can be reliably reproduced

• FJA assumes that jobs can be described in terms of three basic relationships that the job incumbent has with the work:

□ Physically relating to things

□ Using mental resources to process data

□ Interacting with people

– Using behavioral terms, each of these relationships can be organized along a continuum of complexity (lowest to highest)

• One advantage of the FJA is that each job has a quantitative score

□ Jobs can be arranged for compensation or other HRM purposes because jobs with similar ratings can be assumed to be similar

• In the 1990s, the U.S. Dept. of Labor Employment and Training Administration undertook a major job analysis initiative called O*NET (Occupational Information Network)

□ O*NET is replacing the DOT

□ It is an Internet accessible database that describes occupations, worker KSAOs, and workplace requirements

• O*NET

□ Is more user-friendly than the DOT

□ Reduced the 12,000 different occupations of the DOT to just over 1,000

□ Categorizes data into six groups referred to as the O*NET Content Model (see Figure 6-5):

– Experience requirements – Occupational requirements – Occupation specific requirements – Occupational characteristics – Worker characteristics – Worker requirements

• Typical users of O*NET:

□ Human resource professionals

□ Career counselors

□ Recruiters

□ Trainers and educators

Position Analysis Questionnaire

• The position analysis questionnaire (PAQ):

□ Was developed by researchers at Purdue University

□ Contains 195 items

□ Requires considerable experience and a high level of reading comprehension to complete properly

□ It is often filled out by a trained job analyst, who must decide whether each item applies to a particular job

• The 195 items on the PAQ are divided into six major sections:

□ Information input

□ Mental processes

□ Work output

□ Job context

□ Other job characteristics

• Computerized scoring of the PAQ is based on seven dimensions:

□ Decision making

□ Communication

□ Social responsibilities

□ Performing skilled activities

□ Being physically active

□ Operating vehicles or equipment

□ Processing information

– The scores permit the development of job profiles and job comparison

• PAQ advantages:

□ The biggest advantage is that is has been widely used and researched

□ It is an effective tool for a variety of purposes

□ It is reliable; there is little variance among job analysts’ ratings of the same jobs

□ It is an effective way to establish differences in the abilities required for jobs

□ It is valid; jobs rated higher with the PAQ prove to be those compensated at higher rates

• PAQ disadvantages:

□ It requires time and patience to complete

□ No specific work activities are described, so behavioral activities performed in jobs may distort actual work task differences

– Example: A similar profile may be shown for a typist, a belly dancer, and a ballet dancer because all require fine motor skills □ Ratings on the PAQ might represent the job analyst’s stereotype about the work in question, rather than actual differences among jobs

Management Position Description Questionnaire

• Conducting a job analysis for managerial jobs is challenging because of:

□ The disparity across positions

□ Levels in the hierarchy

□ The type of industry

• An attempt to systematically analyze managerial jobs was conducted at Control Data Corporation

□ The result is the management position description questionnaire (MPDQ)

• The MPDQ is:

□ A checklist of 208 items related to the concerns and responsibilities of managers

□ A comprehensive description of managerial work

□ Intended for use across most industrial settings

• The latest version of the MPDQ has 15 sections:

□ General information

□ Decision making

□ Planning and organizing

□ Administering

□ Controlling

□ Supervising

□ Consulting and innovating

□ Contacts

□ Coordinating

□ Representing

□ Monitoring business indicators

□ Overall ratings

□ Knowledge, skills, and abilities

□ Organization chart

□ Comments and reactions

• The common metric questionnaire (CMQ) is another method of quantitative job analysis

□ It is completed by a job incumbent

□ Questionnaire items require a lower reading level

□ It is more behaviorally concrete, making it easier for incumbents to rate their jobs

□ It is applicable to both exempt and nonexempt positions, which may increase the number of intrajob skill-based comparisons that can be made

• Considerable research on job analysis is being conducted in Europe, focusing on alternative quantitative methods

□ In Germany, several techniques have the goal of analyzing and describing work at the task level, independent of the incumbent’s perceptions

Job Descriptions and Specifications

• The job description is one of the primary outputs provided by a systematic job analysis (see Exhibit 6-1)

□ It is a written description of what the job entails

□ It is difficult to over-emphasize how important thorough, accurate, and current job descriptions are to an organization

• Changes in recent years have increased the need for job descriptions:

□ The incredible number of organizational restructurings

□ The need to implement new and creative ways to motivate and reward employees

□ The accelerated rate at which technology is changing work environments

□ New, more stringent federal regulation of employment practices

• There is no standard format for a job description, but almost all well-written, useful descriptions include:

□ Job title

□ Summary

□ Equipment

□ Environment

□ Activities

• The job specification evolves from the job description

□ It addresses the question, “What personal traits and experience are needed to perform the job effectively?”

□ It is especially useful for recruitment and selection

• R. J. Harvey offers the following guidelines for arriving at the characteristics that should be included on a job specification:

□ All job tasks must be identified and rated in terms of importance, using sound job analysis techniques

□ A panel of experts, incumbents, or supervisors should specify the necessary skills for performing each of the job tasks identified

□ The importance of each skills must be rated

□ Any other characteristics necessary for performing the job should be identified, such as physical requirements and professional certification

□ Each skill that has been identified must be specifically linked to each job task

• Any trait or skill stated on the job specification should be required for performance of the job

□ The Americans with Disabilities Act makes the job analyst’s responsibilities even greater in this area

□ Job specifications must differentiate between essential and nonessential skills

– Essential skills are those for which alternative ways of accomplishing the job are not possible – Nonessential skills can be accommodated by changing the structure or work methods of the job

Job Analysis and Strategic Human Resource Management

• There are many signs that the fundamental nature of work may be changing

□ Functional areas are not as important as they once were for defining a job

□ After reengineering an organization’s processes, new job responsibilities may be poorly defined

• Organizations must continually adapt to changing business environments

□ Thus, reengineering is likely in a majority of organizations

□ The job analyst has traditionally created descriptions of jobs as they currently exist

– Now they must also describe jobs that will exist in the future

• There is a growing need to match human resource activities to an organization’s strategic planning

□ This requires an ability to write job specifications that accurately detail the knowledge and skills that will complement future strategic initiatives

□ Job descriptions will no longer be snapshots of a static job

□ Strategic job analysis will have to capture both the present and the future

• Compounding the potential problems of reengineering, many work environments will offer employees greater flexibility in when and how they work

□ Compressed work schedules

□ Telecommuting

□ Job sharing

□ Flexible hours

Job Analysis and Employee Competencies

• Competencies are general attributes employees need to do well across multiple jobs or within the organization as a whole

□ Includes anything from “teamwork” to “leadership potential”

• Many organizations identify, communicate, and reward competencies that they believe employees should have

□ Competency modeling in HR practices reflects an organization’s desire to:

– Communicate job requirements in ways that extend beyond the job itself – Describe and measure the organization’s workforce in more general, competency terms – Design and implement staffing programs focused around competencies, rather than specific jobs, as a way to increase staffing flexibility

Job Design

• Once job descriptions and specifications are available, the information can be used for designing or redesigning jobs

□ There is no one best way to design a job

– Different situations call for different arrangements of job characteristics – Different emphasis may be placed on performance and satisfaction as desired outcomes – It is unlikely that any one approach will satisfy all the goals of a manager □ The choice of job design involves trade-offs based on the critical needs of the organization

• The design of work can be classified into four major approaches:

□ Perceptual-motor

□ Biological

□ Mechanistic

□ Motivational

• The perceptual-motor and biological approaches are based on human factors engineering

□ They emphasize equipment design and matching machines to operators

Scientific Management and the Mechanistic Approach

• Job design was a central issue in F. W. Taylor’s model of scientific management

□ The work of every workman is fully planned out by management at least one day in advance

□ Each man receives in most cases complete written instructions

□ The instructions specify what is to be done, how it is to be done, and the time allowed for doing it

– The emphasis was on breaking jobs down into simple, repetitive tasks that could be done quickly and efficiently

• Recommendations stemming from Taylor’s scientific management:

□ Work should be studied scientifically

□ Work should be arranged so that workers can be efficient

□ Employees should be matched to the demands of the job

□ Employees should be trained to perform the job

□ Monetary compensation should be tied directly to performance

• Many managers find the scientific management approach to job design appealing because the goal is improving organizational performance

□ Repetitive, highly specialized work can lead to dissatisfaction among employees

□ Efficiency gains may be offset by losses in job satisfaction and higher levels of absenteeism and turnover

• Job enlargement attempts to increase satisfaction by giving employees a greater variety of things to do

□ The expansion is considered horizontal because employees are only given a greater variety of tasks to do, no additional authority or responsibility

Job Enrichment: A Motivational Approach

• Job enrichment tries to design jobs in ways that help incumbents satisfy their needs for growth, recognition, and responsibility

□ The job is expanded vertically; employees are given responsibility that might previously have been part of a supervisor’s job

• The notion of satisfying employees’ needs comes from Frederick Herzberg’s two-factor theory of work motivation

□ Employees will be motivated by jobs that enhance their feelings of self-worth

• According to the job characteristics model, a job must possess “core job dimensions” to lead to desired outcomes:

□ Skill variety

□ Task identity

□ Task significance

□ Autonomy

□ Feedback

• Having these core dimensions in a job produces three critical psychological states in job incumbents:

□ Experienced meaningfulness

□ Experienced responsibility

□ Knowledge of results

– The more these states are experienced, the more internal work motivation the job incumbent will feel

• Skill variety, task identity, and task significance contribute to a sense of meaningfulness

□ Autonomy is related to feelings of responsibility

□ Feedback is related to knowledge of results

• The job characteristics model describes the relationships that are predicted to exist among four sets of factors:

□ Core job dimensions

□ Psychological states

□ Personal and work-related outcomes

□ Strength of needs

– Because people have different capabilities and needs, the linkages shown in Exhibit 6-9 may be modified

• After 20 years of research, there are no clear answers about the effectiveness of enrichment

□ Studies support the expectation that jobs perceived to possess the core dimensions of the job characteristics model are more satisfying

□ However, the relationships between the critical psychological states and employees’ reactions to enrichment are not yet fully understood

□ And, increasing the scope of a job beyond certain levels can have detrimental effects on workers

Work-Family Balance and Job Design

• Organizations are directing more attention and resources toward helping employees balance their work and family demands

□ This work-family tension is driven by the changing demographics of the workforce

– The number of women and single parents entering the workforce – Dual-career couples – The aging population

• Some organizations try to meet employees’ needs through flexible work arrangements:

□ Job sharing

□ Flextime

□ Telecommuting

• Family-friendly work arrangements have benefits:

□ Higher recruitment and retention rates

□ Improved morale

□ Lower absenteeism and tardiness

□ Higher levels of employee productivity

• Job sharing is a work arrangement in which two or more employees divide a job’s responsibilities, hours, and benefits

□ The success of job sharing depends on:

– Identifying those jobs that can be shared – Understanding employees’ individual sharing style – Matching “partners” who have complementary scheduling needs and skills

• With flextime, employees can choose when to be at the office

□ 5 days/8 hours

□ 4 days/10 hours

□ Arrive later on Monday, leave earlier on Friday

– Flextime has a positive influence on employee performance, job satisfaction, and absenteeism – Flexible work schedules that are too unstructured lose some of their effectiveness over time

• Telecommuting allows employees to work in their homes part- or full-time

□ Communication is maintained through the phone, fax, and computer

□ Often resisted by managers who fear loss of control and subordinate accessibility

• Organizations should consider three issues when developing and implementing flexible work arrangement options:

□ The program should be open to all employees, if possible

□ Train managers and reward them for encouraging subordinates to use flextime without fear of having their careers derailed

□ Be mindful of laws that impact flexible work arrangement policies

Job Design: The Next Challenge

• In the 1980s and 1990s, European and Asian firms revolutionized job design by embracing the quality management movement

□ More recently, self-directed teams have become important in the success of manufacturers worldwide

□ American firms are also implementing self-directed work teams and are reengineering their work process to regain a competitive advantage

• Many organizations have learned that reengineering cannot succeed unless careful attention is also paid to the effects on how employees use their skills

□ The appropriate response to these changes is exemplified by Coopers & Lybrand’s competency alignment process (CAP)

– CAP determines the skill levels of employees in order to identify skill gaps – When a gap is identified, it can be eliminated through a variety of programs, including training, redeployment, and outsourcing □ Without these or similar efforts, reengineering will probably not succeed

The vocabulary of job analysis

• job analysis • job description • job specification • tasks • position • job • job family/occupation

2. The steps in job analysis

• examine the total organization • determine how JA information will be used • select the jobs to be analyzed • collect the data by using acceptable JA techniques • prepare job description • prepare job specification • design jobs • evaluate and modify if necessary

3. The uses of job analysis

a. required by and/or linked to several EEO laws

i. Equal Pay Act (1963)

ii. Fair Labor Standards Act (1938)

iii. Civil Rights Act (1964)

iv. court cases involving test validation:

• Griggs vs. Duke Power

b. a good job analysis will provide information for:

• preparing job descriptions • human resource planning • recruitment • selection/test development & validation • performance evaluation • training and development • career planning and development • compensation • safety • job design • labor relations

4. Who should conduct the job analysis?

• incumbent • supervisor • job analyst

5. The use of charts

• the organization chart • process chart

6. Methods of data collection

• Job Analysis Information Format (JAIF) • observation/ sampling • interview • questionnaire • job incumbent diary/log • multi-method job analysis approach (hybrid approach)

7. Specific quantitative techniques:

• Functional Job Analysis (FJA) • Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ) • Management Positions Description Questionnaire (MPDQ) • Many new quantitative job analysis processes (CMQ, O*NET)

8. Job descriptions and specifications

a. job descriptions should include:

• job title • summary • equipment • environment • activities

b. job specifications should include:

• job tasks identified & rated in terms of importance • panel of experts should decide skills of each job task • importance of each skill must be rated • any other necessary requirements should be included (ex. certification) • each identified skill must be linked to each job task

c. job analysis and strategic HRM (ex. hiring of new faculty to be switch hitters)

• compressed work schedules • telecommuting • job sharing • flextime

d. job analysis and employee competencies

• communicate job requirements in ways that extend beyond the job itself

• describe and measure the organization’s workforce in more general, competency terms (ex. teamwork, leadership potential)

• design and implement staffing programs focused around competencies, rather than specific jobs, to increase staffing flexibility

9. Job design

a. results of the job analysis

b. perspectives

• perceptual-motor approach • biological approach • mechanistic approach • motivational approach

c. scientific management and the mechanistic approach

i. job design and Taylor's rational approach

ii. scientific management approach

• work to be studied scientifically • work should be arranged for efficiency • scientific recruitment & selection • proper training for job performance • compensation tied to performance

iii. job enlargement (vs. repetitiveness & efficiency)

d. job enrichment: a motivational approach

i. job enrichment

ii. job characteristics model

• skills variety • task identity • task significance (experienced meaningfulness)

• autonomy (experienced responsibility)

• feedback (knowledge of results)

e. work-family balance and job design

• flextime • compressed work week • part-time

f. job design: the next challenge

• TQM & self-directed teams

• reengineering & competency alignment process (CAP)

Review Questions

1. Job analysis is used to provide answer to several questions. Please identify five of those questions?

2. Job analysis is often serves as a “cornerstone” of HRM. Please describe three HRM functions or activities that use job analysis in some way?

3. How might job analysis be helpful to an organization that is being sued for sex discrimination in promotion?

4. As a current (or future) manager, how will you communicate the requirements of an entry-level customer service representative to a candidate who just arrived at your office for an interview? Will you describe the job in terms of competencies? Knowledge, skills, and abilities? Both? Explain your answer.

5. What core information should be included in most job descriptions and job specifications?

Application Case 6-1

Job Analysis: Assistant Store Managers at Today’s Fashion

1. Critically evaluate the job analysis that Mary conducted for the position of assistant store manager. Has she used appropriate methods? What are the strengths and weaknesses of her efforts?

2. What kinds of factors about Today’s Fashion and its operations should Mary have examined more seriously in order to improve her job analysis?

3. Carefully read the job description and job specification that Mary prepared. Do they appear to be thorough? Do you think that they as adequate to serve as a basis for a new selection system? How well do you think these documents will work if May is sued for discrimination in her hiring practices? Why?