Child Trafficking
Herman noble
University of Alabama at Birmingham
May 7 2012

Human trafficking has become an international problem that has developed into a world social issue. There are many forms of human trafficking such as child trafficking, abduction, and laundering. This is a major problem because human trafficking is illegal and a violation of human rights. Nevertheless, this repulsive act is continuously committed. Poverty, greed, corruption, supply and demand, is the components of human trafficking. Some have argued and defined human trafficking as the removing of any orphan from their culture and placing them in an unrelated different environment. Nevertheless, it is the poor non-educated families from developing or sending nations that suffer the most. Kenya and other nations have been affected by human trafficking in one way or another, while the United State avoids legal responsibility and accountability in such matters.
Kenya’s issue is child abduction. This type of human trafficking is increasing around the world. Children are abducted and forced to fight in armies. The majority of the world’s conflict is fought by children. Healy (2008) states: Children are recruited primarily because they are easily to control and indoctrinate…Some are abducted or conscribed by force;…Girls are abducted into armies, some to serve as soldiers, others for sex, and often both(p.96).
Bondo district, Kenya is characterized by high levels of poverty, and a HIV prevalence rate (13.7%), which is twice the national average. Under these conditions, the issue of orphanhood becomes extremely relevant. Because of the AID epidemic, one–third of the children have lost one parent, while one out of nine has lost both. This makes the children in Kenya most vulnerable to be abducted. Furthermore, Skovdal (2008) argues that the politicians must use effective language when making policy because language influences the thought process.
Child laundering is another type human trafficking that have generated concerns around the world. The population that is most vulnerable to child laundering is poor non-educated families. Smolin states, “…some sending nations have a custom, particularly among the poor, of placing children in institutions for the purposes of education, food, housing, and care, without parental rights”(p. 119). This practice has left the children vulnerable because there is no one to protect them. Greed, corruption, and supply and demand are major factors in child laundering, and the receiving nations are the beneficiaries. There is a world market for the illegal selling of international orphan children. The children and their families are preyed upon, tricked, and deceived by their corrupt elected government officials. Once the government removes the children, they sold in the U.S and North America for a profit. This problem is systemic in developing nations dealing in international adoption and in poor families that are forced to participate in these activities. In order to rectify the problem, more attention needs to be focused on environmental (poverty and education), cultural, and moral (destructive practices) issues.
According to Smolin(2005), the problem presents itself in several ways. First, poor uneducated families from developing nations are targeted because they are in desperate need of money, and they are often naïve, and they can easily be tricked out of their parental rights. These families have no advocate or representatives looking out for their best interest. The second problem is a developing nation's intercountry adoption (ICA) system is structured in a way that allows children to be taken illegally from their families and put into an adoption system and laundered to be legally adopted. However, the third problem raises more concerns than the first two. A lack of regulatory laws in the intercountry’s adoption systems advocates and promotes corruption and destructive practices. These three problems are supported by the high demand for international orphan children in the U.S and North America.
According to Bailey ( 2009), child laundering was readdressed by the State Department in 2006 when the department implemented its final rules of the Hague Convention and the Intercountry Adoption Act. The main idea of the Convention was to provide ethical standards, principles, and practices to help protect children from abusive and destructive practices. The first international policy that addressed international adoption was the Convention on Protection of Children and Co-operation in Respect of Intercountry Adoption Hague Convention of 1993. Legal recognition of adoption between participating countries provided operating standards, while requiring the participating countries to establish a Central Authority for oversight and responsibility. 75 countries were persuaded to comply with the new legislation. Furthermore, in 2000 the Intercountry Adoption Act of 2000, the U.S. legislation to affect the Convention was keep enacted. However, the legislation was not ratified until December 2007 and implemented until April 2008. Even though social work played a key role in the adoption practices in the U.S, there was very little influence on adoption practices around the world.
To determine if changes in international policy had any effect on child laundering, a qualitative study was used as a method of investigating the relationship between the new rules and international adoption and people’s meaning and perception about the new rules. The method of sampling used was self-selection and snowball. From 1990 to 2007, mere references were made regarding international or intercountry adoption and only two articles discussed the Hague Convention. The participants were asked questions concerning their predictions on the impact that the Final Rules would have on families, children, and families. They were first asked was they familiar with the new rule, second they was asked questions regarding the impact of the new rule will have on children, families, and agencies. Furthermore, they was asked a series of opened-questions: 1) did they have any concern about the new rule, 2) what effect will the new rule have on agencies, 3) do you have remaining thoughts or concerns? All interviews were conducted by phone. Four were from home study, and the other nine were from child placement agencies. The findings were that all interviews indicated some knowledge about the rule, while nine reported being very familiar with it. Most of the participants discussed the potential impact on the rules in terms that were congruent with its intended objectives. All but one of the interviews agreed if properly implemented these practices would create a better, safe environment for families and children. Seven indicated that the rule would create more ethical practices within the field. These respondents indicated that ethical practices would facilitate two processes: Standardization and transparency of practices. Eleven related that this standardization would produce practices that would have a direct, positive impact on families and waiting children. Families will be more informed to make better decision and be better protected from potentially unstable placement environments. Children would also be protected from unethical practices, such as selling.
Bailey concluded that the participants expressed a hope that the new rules would protect children and families from destructive unethical practices. Furthermore, they viewed the new legislation as fulfilling its manifested function of protecting the interest of the children and their families. It was concluded that it was important for the State Department to produce a system that would meet the Convention’s expectations. Anything less would undermine international adoption in the United States since the Convention countries may refuse to enter agreements with non-Convention countries. According to Roby and Shaw (2006), the orphan crisis in Africa has reached desperate proportions. Civil war, poverty, and disease remain common factors. Over 12 million children have lost one or both parents to health problems. Furthermore, it is projected that the orphan number drastically jumped to approximately to 20 million. The orphan crisis has been a social issue for Africa for decades. However, the world has responded slowly by only recently mobilize beginning to the community, identifying a model for orphan care, strengthening the capacity of family, ensuring access to essential services, mobilizing and strengthening community-based responses, government roles in protecting children, and raising the awareness. This indeed would empower orphans and make them less vulnerable. Another type of human trafficking is removing orphans from their culture and placing them into a totally different culture.
Roby and Shaw pointed out that the Black Social Workers (NABSW) strongly opposed transracial adoptions in the United States and consider them illegal because it creates issues surrounding adoption such as racism, racial and cultural identity, development, waiting children in the United States public child welfare system, and the potential legal risks are outlined. The NABSW, the International Convention, and the United Nations Conventions on Rights of the Child suggest that every effort should be made to place a child in a home with foster parents of a similar race and ethnic background because some studies show that transracial adoption may result in negative self-esteem and adjustment outcomes. Older children are more likely to display psychological and behavioral problems than younger children. It is perceived that African countries reject international adoption. Only a handful of African countries participate in international adoption with the United States. However, regardless of the standpoint, these adoptions do take place.
In Asia, child laundering is a problem. According to Smolin (2005), the Cambodian adoption scandal is well documented, for there is large-scale child laundering within the intercountry adoption system. Many children are obtained from birth by deceit. However,
India is another nation that had difficulties complying with international adoption laws. Unfortunately, India’s adoption system combines a centralized and complex system of high ideas and multiple safe guards against trafficking and corruption with a high incident of notorious adoption scandals involving trafficking and corruption. India’s unethical policies have been consistent for over a decade with no signs of complying with the Hague Convention on Intercountry Adoption.
Information regarding the United States and India documented a series of adoption scandals from the South India State of Andhra Pradesh. Smolin states, “Several orphanages in that state systematically sent out scouts to purchase infant females from vulnerable poor families” (p. 148). There is evidence that Indian agencies also obtained children through the various forms of child-stealing and kidnapping by misrepresentation to birth parents, taking children placed temporarily for care and education and sending them to adoption, and changing the identities of missing or lost children in order to place them for adoption as orphans. Andhra Pradesh scandals are considered the first kind of child-buying scandal, where the international criminal conspiracy is headed by citizens of the sending countries, and no citizen of the recipient nation intentionally participates in the trafficking.
The press reports that South Asia indicated that intercountry adoption in Tamil Nadu has become involved with the placement of stolen children. According to Smolin (2005) there is evidence that these children have been sent to foreign countries for intercountry adoption. It should be noted that the illicit and improper conduct of India’s adoption system is systemic throughout the country. It is highly suggested that the Indian system has been extensively used for child laundering. This is disturbing because it is depicted that the child Laundering practices originated from the religious organizations.
The rise of Guatemala as a sending nation differs from the intercountry adoption policies of other Latin American countries intercountry adoption due to negative experiences and press with corruption, profiting, and child laundering. Guatemalan adoption has been suspected of unethical practices due to concerns with buying and stealing children for years. Since the United State ratified the Hague Convention on Intercountry Adoption, Guatemala has been under investigation and Canada has terminated adoption from Guatemala.

Reference
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