...Francis Bacon: "The Secretary of Nature" Bacon's real claim to fame is: not that he, as the lord chancellor, in 1621, was removed from office for accepting a litigant's bribe; nor, that he was the real writer of the Shakespearean plays (one of the controversies in English literature, the "Baconian controversy")3; but rather Francis Bacon is known as a philosopher, one of the first order. Bacon delineated the principles of the inductive method, which constituted a breakthrough in the approach to science, even though philosophers and scientists of the day, - and seemingly today, yet - repudiated both his theories and methodology, alike. Bacon argued that the only knowledge of importance to man was empirically rooted in the natural world; and that a clear system of scientific inquiry would assure man's mastery over the world. He was the originator of the expression, "Knowledge is power." He was quite taken up by the "materialist" theories and the resultant discoveries of both Copernicus and Galileo. Bacon, along with Galileo, are known in the literature as "the great anti-Aristotelians who created the 'modern scientific' view of Nature." Francis Bacon was born at London. He entered Trinity College, Cambridge, at the age of twelve. He studied law and became a barrister in 1582; two years later he took a seat in the House of Commons. His opposition, in 1584, to Queen Elizabeth's tax program retarded his political advancement. While in the earlier days he supported the Earl of Essex...
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...Mill's methods John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) was an English philosopher who wrote on a wide range of topics ranging from language and science to political philosophy. The so-called "Mill's methods" are five rules for investigating causes that he has proposed. § S05.1 The Method of Agreement | The best way to introduce Mill's methods is perhaps through an example. Suppose your family went out together for a buffet dinner, but when you got home all of you started feeling sick and experienced stomach aches. How do you determine the cause of the illness? Suppose you draw up a table of the food taken by each family member : Member / Food taken | Oyster | Beef | Salad | Noodles | Fallen ill? | Mum | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Dad | Yes | No | No | Yes | Yes | Sister | Yes | Yes | No | No | Yes | You | Yes | No | Yes | No | Yes | Mill's rule of agreement says that if in all cases where an effect occurs, there is a single prior factor C that is common to all those cases, then C is the cause of the effect. According to the table in this example, the only thing that all of you have eaten is oyster. So applying the rule of agreement we infer that eating oyster is the cause of the illnesses. § S05.2 The Method of Difference | | Now suppose the table had been different in the following way: Member / Food taken | Oyster | Beef | Salad | Noodles | Fallen ill? | Mum | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Dad | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Sister | Yes | Yes | Yes...
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...The aim of this paper is to clearly depict how John Stuart Mill’s belief to do good for all is more appropriate for our society than Immanuel Kant’s principle that it is better to do what's morally just. I will explain why Mill’s theory served as a better guide to moral behavior and differentiate between the rights and responsibilities of human beings to themselves and society. Immanuel Kant and John Stuart Mill are philosophers who addressed the issues of morality in terms of how moral customs are formed. Immanuel Kant presented one perspective in The Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals that is founded on his belief that the worth of man is inherent in his skill to reason. John Stuart Mill holds another belief as presented in the book, Utilitarianism, which is seemingly conflicting with the thoughts of Kant. What is most unique about the ethics of morality is the idea of responsibilities to particular individuals. According to both Mill and Kant, moral obligations are not fundamentally particularistic because they are rooted in universal moral principles. Both philosophers have made great impacts in their niche areas in the field. An analysis of their theories may help develop a better understanding of them and their theories. Mill holds an empiricist theory while Kant holds a rationalist theory. Kant explains morality through forms that he believes are essential to free and sensible judgment. Mill’s utilitarian approach is a form of consequential theory because...
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...Marc Weinstein Teacher’s Assistant: Paul amazzoc Course Code: HREQ 1720 John Stuart Mill was known as a political economist, British philosopher and influential contributor to social and political theory. J.S. Mill was famous for his writing on individual liberty and utilitarianism (). He believed individual liberty is essential in evolving society as well as unleashing the truth (). Mills ideas stretched to governing every aspect of human liberty promoting change, innovation, and the development of societies. His greatest concern was that human beings will form into a “collective norm” where human innovation would not exist; thus, Mill created unique conditions in which his concepts of individual liberty may flourish. Although his notions became problematic he was still able to clarify the benefits that came with individual liberty. J.S. Mill clearly illustrated the significance of individual liberty, while interlinking the cultural effects on individual liberty. Mainly, J.S. Mill emphasis the abolishment of tyranny whether politically or socially while promoting a simplistic yet effective view on societal growth and individual liberty. Mill created a view that attempt to create utilitarianism in a society that seemed too governed by limited scope. John Stuart Mill solidified the concept on individual liberty by developing the harm principle which argued that individuals should be permitted to do as they wish as long as their actions do not harm others (). Moreover,...
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...J.S. Mill’s Economic Philosophy and Political Corruption in 21st Century Australia Carly Sandler Z5088638 University of New South Wales Introduction John Stuart Mill was an influential economic thinker and reformer, whose novel ideals of economic social proved to have a lasting impact on future reformative programs endowed in moral value. Mill’s economic contributions has been characterized into the classical system of economics: production, the distribution of goods, rents and wages, and the economic role of government, which leaves many to critique its practical implications to modern day issues like political corruption in Australia. Today’s political environment in Australia is pigeonholed by a lack of transparency in government contracting and enforcement of regulations, greedy politicians extorting taxpayer money, and power of lobbyists on influencing government policy. Though these concepts were of no concern during Mill’s life, the fundamental theme of institutional power and constraints on societal development can be utilized to weave abstract thinking into realistic interpretations. Thus, the aim of this paper is to ascertain the extent to which Mill’s 19th century economic ideas can be applied to issues of political corruption in 21st century Australia and possible reform. The Economic Philosophy of John Stuart Mill J.S. Mill was born in 1806 in Pentonville, France. He was the eldest son of James Mill, who was a major constituent of Jeremy Bentham’s radical...
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...al., 2015, p. 106). In other words, Mill believes it is only justifiable for the state to intervene in the private life of an individual, when their actions brings harms to other. Mill’s main argument in his harm theory is that, in the private life of an individual, one should be free to their opinion and do as they please “at their own cost” (Tasson et al., 2015, p. 106). This principle is important to John Stuart Mill because he believes...
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...Contextual Analysis The concept of Utilitarianism by Mill is that an action is right if it tends to promote happiness and wrong if it tends to produce the reverse of happiness- not just the happiness of the performer of the action but also that of everyone affected by it. The Rainbow Fish relates to a core notion of basic utilitarianism, the happiness of the group vs. the happiness of the individual. The basic of utilitarian tenets of "The greatest good for the greatest number" and "Maximizing happiness across the population" are easily apparent when reflecting on Rainbow Fish's decision and the consequences (Mill). In the Rainbow Fish's case, theoretically, he was going to be a little less happy if he lost his scales, but as a result his friends will become much happier. In practice, though, giving everyone a scale actually made him even happier. Mill’s theory of maximizing happiness across the population in Utilitarianism explains why Rainbow Fish becomes happier when he shares his scales with the other fish and his perspective of selfishness explains why Rainbow Fish is unhappy at first. In the book, The Rainbow Fish, there is one of the most beautiful fish in the ocean. Unlike all of the other fish, Rainbow Fish had shimmering, colorful scales. He is asked to share one of his shining scales with a little blue fish, and to which he refuses. All the other fish in the sea leave him alone, and he wondered why. He goes to the wise octopus for advice, and she tells him to give...
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...Ethical Judgments ! Utilitarianism ! An Introduction to the Moral Theories of Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill Ethical philosophy differs from the sciences because it is normative or prescriptive, rather than descriptive. In other words, ethics tell us how we ought to act or what we should do, while the sciences are more likely to observe how things are in nature or society. Making Ethical Judgments Areas of Emphasis in Making Moral Judgments Purpose or Act Rule Act, Rule, Motive or Maxim Results or Consequences Making Ethical Judgments in Utilitarianism ! ! ! Utilitarianism says that the Result or the Consequence of an Act is the real measure of whether it is good or bad. This theory emphasizes Ends over Means. Theories, like this one, that emphasize the results or consequences are called teleological or consequentialist. Bentham’s Formulation of Utilitarianism ! ! ! Jeremy Bentham Man is under two great masters, pain and pleasure. The great good that we should seek is happiness. (a hedonistic perspective) Those actions whose results increase happiness or diminish pain are good. They have “utility.” 1 Jeremy Bentham’s Hedonistic Calculus ! Four Theses of Utilitarianism ! ! ! In determining the quantity of happiness that might be produced by an action, we evaluate the possible consequences by p q y applying several values: Intensity, duration, certainty or uncertainty, propinquity or remoteness, fecundity, purity,...
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...role of the individual in society. In place of the pessimism of his father and Ricardo, he advanced a guarded optimism that contemplated the development of a good society. Although he read widely, the major influences on his economic ideas were his early training in the classical economics of Smith, Ricardo, his own father, and Bentham; the socialist writings of Fourier and Saint-Simon; the writings of Comte, sometimes called the father of sociology, who led Mill to view economics as only one aspect of human social activity; and, finally, his friend Harriet Taylor, who later became his wife and who taught Mill to be more receptive to the humanistic socialist ideas of his times. Mill was both a classical liberal and a social reformer. J. S. Mill's position in the development of economic ideas is difficult to specify. He wrote at the end of the classical period, but his open-mindedness, one of his greatest assets, enabled him to modify classical doctrine in several ways. His economics is simultaneously the most mature statement of the classical position and the start of a new period in the development of economic thinking. His Principles of Political Economy, written in less than two years, was first published in 1848 and remained, in its subsequent seven editions, the standard in the field until the end of the century. The short period it took Mill to write the...
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...of property, for instance, are subject to intervention as these consequences are uncontroversial examples of harm. But not all cases are so clear-cut. Mill himself acknowledges that even purely self-regarding actions can affect others, and it is uncertain at what point affect becomes harm. For example, a person’s religious opinions and right to discuss them should be considered immune from state interference. But expression of these views may well constitute blasphemy for others and in this sense may cause harm. Mill himself distinguishes between causing offence, which does not count as harm, and inciting violence, which is harmful and should be regulated, but the distinction is far from controversial. Other questions may also be asked of Mill’s conception of harm: can a person’s character be morally harmed? Can harm be done to institutions, traditions or other forms of life? Can omission of an action which would benefit others be considered harm? Evidently not all actions that affect others should be considered harmful. There appears to be some further consideration that allows us to distinguish between actions that do, and actions that do not, break the Harm Principle. Acts, of whatever kind, which without...
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...gain pleasure from it. For example, if someone was getting bullied and beaten his pain would be insignificant compared to the other bullies happiness, so in the majority pleasure would override pain making this act acceptable, which is even on a basic level is morally wrong. Secondly, in the case of an individual being bullied by say three others, Bentham has not taken into account that the pain of that one individual may in fact be far greater than the other three people. Although there are theories such as Mill’s “greatest-happiness principle”, especially Weak Rule Utilitarianism, but even then it has difficulties in regards to notions like justice and the motive behind the action, and it is also difficult to grasp the consequences of the action. For example it is clearly unfair and deserving of some punishment that an individual intentionally didn’t buy a train ticket, but travelled and reached their destination without being checked. However, according to Mill’s Act Utilitarianism theory this is acceptable, as overall the train company have not been significantly disadvantaged. If this were taken to the extreme however, where everyone intentionally avoided paying fares in the belief that they would get away without being caught, many people would benefit from this with the corresponding pleasure overriding the pain. Some people believe that some acts are inherently wrong and cannot be justified even if the consequences do produce more happiness. For example ten men may...
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...What is the value of liberty according to J.S.Mill? Do you agree? Stefan Stefanov NBU John Stuart Mill was known as an economist, philosopher and influential contributor to social and political theory. He was famous for his writing on individual liberty and utilitarianism. He believed individual liberty is essential in evolving society as well as unleashing the truth. Mill’s ideas stretched to governing every aspect of human liberty promoting change, innovation, and the development of societies, his arguments can be easily used in any dispute over rights and freedoms. His greatest concern was that society will morph into a “collective norm” where human innovation would not exist. Although his notions became problematic he was still able to clarify the benefits that came with individual liberty. Mainly, Mill’s emphasis the abolishment of tyranny whether politically or socially while promoting a simplistic yet effective view on social growth and individual liberty. He was a very radical politician for his time. He once proposed in parliament that women should have the right to vote just as man. The vote did not pass and actually he was made fun for his absurd proposition. It went so far as to speculate with his sexual orientation since only “such a person could have these strange ideas”. Mill however did not approve of the movement for universal suffrage and did not believed that a woman should be completely independent. In his essay “On Liberty” explains his thoughts on...
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...John Stuart Mill holds that actions can only be judged as morally good based on the consequences it will have on the greater majority. That is, rather than maximize individual benefits in order to be considered morally good, actions of a utilitarian are only morally good if they maximize benefits for the greatest number. Benefits are defined as happiness minus pain. Individual rights may not count if they hinder the ability to maximize good for the majority. There is therefore a lack of full self-ownership of the benefits derived or arising from such actions. Individuals cannot also transfer the rights and benefits. Promotion of one’s own happiness and welfare and thus individual benefits ceases. Mill’s Greatest Happiness Principle therefore...
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...on the basis that the morality of an action is determined by the rules governing people’s duties to one another as human beings. Kant believed that these duties were derived non-empirically from reason within itself (making these duties binding towards everyone equally independent of each person’s experience). The foundation of Kant’s moral law is called the Categorical Imperative which calls for the respect for humanity towards others and oneself regardless of circumstances. To further the belief of his moral perspective, Kant provides three versions of the Categorical Imperative in three separate formulas: the Formula of Universal Law, Formula of Humanity as an End and Formula of the Kingdom of Ends (all which express the same general notion). According to Kant, child labor within the entertainment sector would be determined as immoral due to its violation to Humanity as an End. The Law of Humanity as an End states that we all should “[a]ct in such a way that [we] always treat humanity, whether in your own person or in the person of other, never simply as a means, but always at the same time as an end” (Kant 513). Though Kant admits that all human beings are all means to an end in and of themselves because we all have some relative worth, he believes that human beings cannot be used merely for the sake of another’s end. In the case of child labor, child entertainers are used merely as a means for the prosperity of entertainment companies and the satisfaction of the audience...
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...Justice in movie Crash In the movie Crash, directed by Paul Haggis, John Stuart Mill's theories on Social Justice and Utility are depicted within the context of the 20th century. Haggis' representation of a multicultural society is one built on racism and inequality, which limits the social justice people can acquire. In this film prejudice and stereotyping are prevalent when discussing legal rights and moral rights. The social situation has profound impacts on the choices people make. This society's foundation is based on injustice, although in the end, justice is served through the concept of `justice of desert'. Social Justice prevails in society where legal laws are practiced and respected. It is considered unjust to: "deprive anyone of his [or her] personal liberty, his [or her] property, or any other thing which belongs to him [or her] by law" (Social Justice and Utility, pg. 168). In this movie there is an inconsistent application of legal laws, which is especially applicable to those individuals considered `foreign' or `immigrant'. The storeowner (no characte... ... middle of paper ... ...esert. This demonstrates to us that no matter how much your legal or moral laws are violated, what matters is how you as an individual react to the situation, justly or unjustly. This movie is centered around the notion that if you are a person of ethnic background, that alone is reason for others to forsake your rights, although in the long run justice will...
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