CHAPTER 5 – Employee Motivation ● Motivation The forces within a person that affect the direction, intensity, and
­
persistence of voluntary behavior. o Exerting particular effort level (intensity), for a certain amount of time
(persistence), toward a particular goal (direction)
▪ Intensity ­­ effort level
▪ Persistence – duration of effort
▪ Direction – effort’s goal target Employee Engagement
● Employee Engagement – individual’s emotional and cognitive motivation, particularly a focused, intense, persistent, and persistent, and purposive effort toward work­related goals o High absorption in the work o High self­efficacy: believe you have the ability, role clarity and resources to get the job done Employee Drives and Needs
● Drives Primary Needs) ­hardwired characteristics of the brain that correct
(
deficiencies or maintain an internal equilibrium by producing emotions to energize individuals
○ Prime movers of behaviour by activating emotions
○ Represent a universal and innate brain function that produces emotions that energize individuals to act on their environment.
○ Drives are innate and universal; we are born with them and everyone has them. ○
○

●

Several human drives identified in research:
i.
Drives for social interaction ii. For knowing what goes on around you iii. For competence or status iv. For defending against physiological & psychological harm or loss
Needs ­ goal directed forces that people experience ○ Drive­generated emotions directed toward goals
○ Goals formed by self­concept, social norms, and experience

Needs and drives, McClelland’s needs theory, Maslow hierarchy of needs
● The individual’s self­concept (including personality & values), social norms, and past experience amplify or suppress drive­based emotions ­ thereby resulting in stronger/weaker needs.

●
●
●

These also regulate a person’s motivated decisions & behavior
Drives and emotions are the prime sources of employee motivation
Drives and needs influence goal­directed behavior

→ Maslow’s Needs Hierarchy Theory
● Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Theory: a motivation theory of needs arranged in a hierarchy, whereby people are motivated to fulfill a higher need as a lower one becomes more gratified.

●

●
●
●
●

Seven need categories (five in a hierarchy) capture most needs
Lowest unmet need is strongest. When satisfied, next higher need becomes strongest motivator
Self­actualisation a growth need because people desire more rather than less
—
of it when satisfied
Maslow’s theory lacks empirical support:
○ People have different hierarchies
○ Needs strongly influenced by self­concept, personal values, and personality ●

5 basic categories (from lowest to highest):
1. Physiological: he need for food, air, water, shelter, and the like **most t important
2. Safety: he need for a secure and stable environment and the absence of t pain, threat, or illness
3. Belongingness/love: he need for love, affection, and interaction with other t people

4. Esteem: he need for self­esteem through personal achievement as well t as social esteem through recognition and respect from others
5. Self­Actualization: he need for self­fulfillment and realization of one’s t potential ●
●
●
●

Maslow also identified the desire to know and the desire for aesthetic beauty as two innate drives that do not fit within the hierarchy.
The strongest source is the lowest unsatisfied need at the time
As a person satisfies a lower­level need, the next higher need in the hierarchy becomes the primary motivator and remains so even if never satisfied
The first four groups are deficiency needs ecause they become activated when b unfulfilled, self­actualization is known as a rowth need ecause it continues to g b develop even when fulfilled

●

●

Whats wrong with Needs Hierarchy Model?
○ Maslow’s theory lacks empirical support
■ People have different hierarchies
■ Needs change more rapidly than Maslow stated
○ Hierarchy models wrongly assume that everyone has the same
(universal) needs hierarchy
○ Instead, needs hierarchies are shaped by person’s own values and self­concept What Maslow Contributed to Motivation Theory
○ Holistic perspective of motivation: aslow argued that motivation
M
research must look at all needs and drives together rather than examining one or two of them apart from others. The reason is that human behavior is typically initiated by more than one need or drive at the same time.
○ Integrative view of needs
● Humanistic perspective of motivation higher­order needs are
:
influenced by personal and social influences (such as self­concept and social norms), not just instincts. Previous motivation research had focused almost entirely on instinctive behavior
○ Influence of social dynamics, not just instinct
● Positive perspective of motivation Maslow refocused attention on
:
need gratification rather than only need deprivation.
○ Pay attention to strengths (growth needs), not just deficiencies

→ McClelland’s Learned Needs Theory
● Further investigated the idea that need strength can be altered through social influences; a person’s need can be strengthened through reinforcement , learning, and social conditions
● Needs are amplified or suppressed through self­concept, social norms and past experience ● Needs can be “learned”
○ Strengthened through reinforcement, learning, and social conditions
● Three learned needs studied by McClelland

○

●
●

Need for achievement (nAch) ­­ Learned need in which people want to accomplish reasonably challenging goals and desire unambiguous feedback and recognition for their success
■ Leach goals, take responsibility
■ Want reasonably challenging goals
○ Need for affiliation (nAff) ­­ A learned need in which people seek approval from others, conform to their wishes and expectations, and avoid conflict and confrontation
■ Desire to seek approval, conform to others wishes, avoid conflict
■ Effective executives have lower need for social approval
○ Need for power (nPow) – A learned need in which people want to control environment, including people and material resources, to benefit either themselves (personalized power) or others (socialized power)
■ Control one’s environment
■ Personalised versus socialised power
Successful entrepreneurs tend to have a high nAch
Successful leaders tend to have relatively low nAff and relatively high socialized nPow → Four Drive Theory
● Four Drive Theory motivation theory based on the innate drives to acquire,
­a
bond, learn, and defend that incorporates both emotions and rationality

●

1. Drive to Acquire:
○ This is a drive to seek, take, control, and retain objects and personal experiences. Includes enhancing one’s self­concept through relative status and recognition in society
2. Drive to Bond:
○ This is the drive to form social relationships and develop mutual caring commitments with others
3. Drive to Learn:

○

This is the drive to satisfy our curiosity, to know and understand ourselves and the environment around us
4. Drive to Defend:
○ This is the drive to protect ourselves physically and socially

●

○

●

●

Social norms, personal values and experience transform drive­based emotions into goal­directed choice and effort
How Four Drives Affect Motivation
○ Four drives determine which emotions are automatically tagged to incoming information
○ Drives generate independent and often competing emotions that demand our attention
○ Mental skill set relies on social norms, personal values and experience to transform drive­based emotions into goal­directed choice and effort
Implications of Four­Drive Theory
○ Provide a balanced opportunity for employees to fulfil all four drives
○ Employees continually seek fulfilment of drives
○ Avoid having conditions support one drive more than others

Expectancy Theory of Motivation
● Expectancy Theory motivation theory based on the idea that work effort is
­ a directed towards behaviors that people believe will lead to desired outcomes ­­ based on rational logic to predict the chosen direction, level, and persistence of motivation ➢ Increasing E­to­P Expectancy: his is the individual’s perception that his/her effort t will result in a particular level of performance. Employees may believe that they can accomplish the task (probability of 1.0); or they expect that even their highest level of effort will result in the desired performance level (probability of 0.0) o Develop employee competencies o Match employee competencies to jobs o Provide role clarity and sufficient resources o Provide behavioural modelling
➢ Increasing P­to­O expectancy: his is the perceived probability that a specific t behavior or performance level will lead to a particular outcome. Employees may believe that accomplishing a task will definitely result in a particular outcome
(probability of 1.0), or they may believe that successful performance will have no effect on this outcome (prob of 0.0) o Measure performance accurately o Increase rewards with desired outcomes o Explain how rewards are linked to performance
➢ Increasing Outcome Valences: he anticipated satisfaction or dissatisfaction that t an individual feels toward an outcome; ranges from negative to positive.
Outcomes have a positive valence when they are consistent and a negative when they oppose our values o Ensure that rewards are valued o Individualise rewards o Minimise countervalent outcomes

→ Organizational Behavior Modification
●

Organizational Behavior Modification (OB Mod) ­ a theory that explains employee behavior in terms of the antecedent conditions and consequences of that behavior
○ Consequences ­ nvironmental events following a particular behavior that e influence its future occurrence, such as the compliments or teasing received from coworkers when the employee wears safety goggles
■ No outcome at all
○ Antecedents ­ environmental events preceding the behavior, informing employees that a particular action will produce specific consequences
■ Do not cause behavior
■ Cue

○
○

Four OB Mod Consequences
● Positive reinforcement: consequence that, when introduced, increases/maintains the target behaviour
● Punishment: onsequence that decreases the target behaviour c ● Negative reinforcement: consequence that, when removed, increases/maintains target behaviour
● Extinction: when no consequence occurs, resulting in less of the target behaviour

●

Social Cognitive Theory ­ theory that explains how learning and motivation occur by observing and modeling others as well as by anticipating the consequences of our behavior
○ Self­Reinforcement ­ reinforcement that occurs when an employee has control over a reinforcer but doesn’t “take” it until completing a self­set goal Goal Setting and Feedback
● Goal setting ­ he process of motivating employees and clarifying their role t perceptions by establishing performance objectives

○

Potentially improves employee performance in 2 ways
i.
Amplifying the intensity and persistence of effort ii. Giving employees clearer role perceptions so their effort is channeled toward behaviors that will improve work performance
○ Effective goals are
i.
Specific ii. Measurable iii. Achievable iv. Relevant to the employee’s job
v.
Set within a time­frame vi. Exciting to create employee commitment vii. Reviewed both during and after the goal has been accomplished
● Effective Goal­Setting Characteristics
○ “SMARTER”
1. Specific What, how, where, when, and with whom the task
–
needs to be accomplished
2. Measurable – how much, how well, at what cost 3. Achievable – challenging, yet accepted (E­to­P) 4. Relevant – within employee’s control 5. Time­framed due date and when assessed
–
6. Exciting employee commitment, not just compliance
–
7. Reviewed feedback and recognition on goal progress and
–
accomplishment
● 6 Characteristics:
1. Specific Goals: mployees put more effort into a talk when they
E
work toward a specific goal rather than “do your best” targets; they are measurable and time­bound. They are motivational because they communicate precise performance expectations so employees can direct their effort efficiently and reliably
2. Relevant Goals: ust be relevant to individual’s job and be within m his or her control
3. Challenging Goals: ause people to raise the intensity and c persistence of their work effort and to think through information more actively
4. Goal Commitment: hallenging goals are effective only if
C
employees are committed to them
5. Goal Participation: oal setting is usually (not always) more g effective when employees participate in setting the goals
6. Goal Feedback: eedback in another necessary condition for f effective goal setting. Feedback in any information that let us know whether we have achieved a goal or are properly directing our effort toward it.
→ Balanced Scorecard
● Organisational­level goal setting and feedback
● Attempts to include measurable performance goals related to financial, customer, internal and learning/growth (i.e., human capital) processes
● Usually includes several goals within each process

→ Characteristics of Effective Feedback
● Feedback ­ information that lets us know whether we have achieved the goal or are properly directing our effort toward it ­ is a critical partner to goal setting
● Effective Feedback
○ Specific
■ The information should refer to specific metrics
○ Relevant
■ Connected to goal details
○ Timely
■ Information should be available soon after the behavior occurs so employees see a clear association between their actions and consequences ○ Credible
■ Employees are more likely to accept feedback from trustworthy and credible sources
○ Sufficiently frequent
■ Depends on 2 Things
● Employees knowledge and experience with the task
● Task Cycle ­ How long it takes to complete the task
● F edback through Strengths­Based Coaching e ○ Maximising the person’s potential by focusing on their strengths rather than weaknesses
○ Motivational because:
■ People inherently seek feedback about their strengths, not their flaws ■ Person’s interests, preferences and competencies stabilise over time ○ Strengths­based Coaching (Appreciative Coaching) ­ a positive organizational behavior approach to coaching and feedback that focuses on building and leveraging the employee’s strengths rather than trying to correct his or her weaknesses
● Sources of Feedback
○ Multisource (360­degree) Feedback is information about an employee’s
­
performance collected from a full circle of people, including subordinates, peers, supervisors, and customers
■ Received from a full circle of people around the employee
■ Provides more complete and accurate information
■ Several challenges
● Expensive and time­consuming
● Ambiguous and conflicting feedback
● Inflated rather than accurate feedback
● Stronger emotional reaction to multiple feedback