CHAPTER 1
Encounter
I. Patterns of Indigenous Life 1. Geography and environment prompted Indigenous Americans to adopt different forms of social organization 1. Nonsedentary peoples 1. Mobile communities 2. Hunters and gatherers 3. Relatively simple social organization 4. Examples include 1. Chichimecas of northern Mexico 2. Pampas of Argentine grasslands 1. Semisedentary peoples 1. Often lived in forests 2. Relied on some agriculture as well as hunting 3. Built villages, but moved frequently 4. Employed “shifting cultivation” agriculture to take advantage of thin forest soil 5. Examples include Tupí people of Brazil 1. Fully sedentary 1. Permanent settlements 2. Often on high plateaus, rather than forests or grasslands 3. Stability allowed for complex societies 4. Employed irrigation to sustain agricultural base 5. Sometimes developed into city-states or empires 6. Highly stratified societies 7. Examples 1. Aztec empire 2. Maya empire 3. Inca empire 1. Empires of the Americas 1. Aztec empire 1. Aztec refers to the empire, not the people 2. In modern-day Mexico 3. Ruled by the Mexica people 4. Nahuatl-speaking 5. Capital at Tenochtitlan more populous than Spanish or Portuguese capitals 1. Inca empire 1. Located in the Andes of South America 2. Inca refers to the emperor and the empire, rather than the people 3. Capital at Cuzco – “the navel of the universe” 4. Quechua speakers 1. Maya empire 1. In modern-day Central America 2. More decentralized than Aztec or Inca – composed of city-states 3. Highly advanced in art, architecture, and astronomy 4. Empire declined well before arrival of Europeans 1. On the eve of encounter, most of Latin America was inhabited by nonsedentary or semisedentary peoples I. Origins of a Crusading Mentality 1. The Iberians who ultimately colonized the Americas were guided by a history of conquest and crusade long before they crossed the Atlantic 1. The Iberian peninsula is made up of Spain and Portugal 2. The Moors: In the year 711, north African Muslims, called Moors, seized much of the peninsula from its former Christian rulers 1. The Moors brought scientific, mathematic, agricultural, and other advancements to Iberia 2. Moors ruled Iberia for more than 800 years 1. “Re-conquest” of Iberia 1. Over hundreds of years, Christian kingdoms pushed back into Iberia, taking over territories and subjugating and converting populations – actions that would be repeated in the Americas 2. The kingdom of Castile was the most important leader of the re-conquest 3. The conquest of Portugal was completed in the 13th century 4. In Spain, the Moorish kingdom of Granada fell in 1492, completing the conquest of Iberia 1. Religious foundations of overseas exploration 1. The defeat of the Moors had solidified a crusading mentality 2. Queen Isabel was a Catholic monarch, committed to spreading Catholicism 3. Catholic monarchies purged non-Catholics, forcing Jews and Muslims to convert or emigrate from Iberia 4. Converted Jews and Muslims were still subject to persecution and discrimination 5. Catholics and Protestants fought throughout Europe 2. Early exploration 6. Portuguese begin exploration in West Africa after completion of their reconquest in the 13th century, returning with gold and slaves 7. Isabella bankrolls the Columbus expedition which seeks trade routes and Catholic influence in Asia I. The Brazilian Counterexample 1. The first Portuguese fleet made landfall in Brazil in 1500 1. Led by Pedro Alavares Cabral, the expedition was destined for India 2. Cabral landed in Brazil on his return voyage after sailing around the southern tip of Africa 3. Named Brazil “the Island of the True Cross,” without knowing it was a new continent 2. Portuguese did not initially see Brazil as an important find 4. Trade routes in Asia and Africa were already very profitable 5. Access to spices, silk, gold, and silver in Asia occupied their attention 3. Initial forays into Brazil 6. Portuguese sailors compared it to the Garden of Eden 7. Most appealing resource found was a red dye made from the “brazilwood” tree 8. The appeal of spreading Christianity to indigenous Brazilians justified conquest 9. Small-scale trade began between Portuguese and Tupí 10. Some Portuguese “went native,” joining indigenous communities 4. Conquest of Brazil 11. The arrival of French ships to Brazil convinced Portuguese king to assert a claim to the territory 12. Portuguese hoped to plant sugarcane 1. the only crop with major export potential 2. required large amount of land and labor to cultivate 1. The Portuguese resorted to armed invasion to secure the land and labor of the Tupí 1. The terrain muted Portuguese advantages, such as horses 2. The Tupí used the terrain to attack and flee into the forest, as well as to escape once captured 3. Conquest of land and people destroyed Tupí society 4. Most successful sugar plantations were those that minimized conflict with indigenous people 1. Indigenous rebellions threatened to destroy settlements by the mid 1540s 2. Portuguese king sought to secure settlements by building a capital city, Salvador (also known as Bahía) and appointing a royal governor 1. Demographic catastrophe 3. Conquest and enslavement wiped out the Tupinambá people (a sub-group of Tupí) 4. Diseases ravaged indigenous communities, because they had no immunities to European diseases 5. Jesuits tried to defend indigenous people from enslavement, but were unable to stop disease I. Africa and the Slave Trade 1. The collapse of indigenous populations in the Americas created a need for a new labor source 2. Europeans began importing enslaved Africans 1. Europeans and Africans had long-standing connections 1. Africans had exposure to European diseases 2. Many Africans had experience in agriculture and with livestock that indigenous Americans lacked 3. Many Africans were experienced ironworkers 1. Slavery was a part of African societies 1. As in Iberia and the Americas, slaves were often war captives 2. Slavery in Africa was not permanent or inherited, so the descendents of slaves were integrated back into free society 3. The trade in African slaves took off after the 15th-century arrival of the Portuguese 1. Portuguese had traded along the western coast of Africa 1. African slave traders exchanged slaves for Portuguese goods 2. The profitability of slaves captured in war created an impetus for more wars between African kingdoms 3. Portuguese used converting slaves to Christianity as a justification for enslavement 4. Portuguese dominated the slave trade for more than a century 5. More than a million people likely died in passage to the Americas 6. 15–20 percent of captives died on the voyage 7. Olaudah Equiano provides one of the few accounts of the middle passage 1. West Africa was initially the most affected by the slave trade 1. Area between modern Senegal to Nigeria 2. Along the Niger river, kingdoms became famous for their gold 3. This wealth brought traders from Europe and the Middle East 4. The “gold coast” first brought Portuguese to Africa; eventually joined by British, French, and Dutch 5. Portuguese dominated Angola and Mozambique, actively colonizing that territory I. The Fall of the Aztec and Inca Empires 1. Cortés and the Aztec empire 1. The Spanish had subjugated the Caribbean before moving on to Mexico 2. Spanish invaders were not soldiers, but private adventurers and fortune seekers 3. Hernán Cortés had been interacting with indigenous Americans for fifteen years before encountering the Aztec empire 4. The Aztec empire had greater forces, but the Spanish had strategic advantages 1. Moctezuma, the Aztec emperor, did not know who the Spanish were or what threat they posed 2. Cortés, on the other hand, could plan for conquest 3. Moctezuma did not believe that Cortés was the returning god Quetzalcoatl, but may have believed the Spaniards to be supernatural 4. The Spanish brought many things the Mexica had never seen 1. Horses 2. Attack dogs 3. Tall ships 4. Cannons 5. Steel blades 6. Body armor 1. Moctezuma, not realizing the Spaniards’ hostile intent, invited them into Tenochtitlan 2. Spanish took Moctezuma hostage 3. Indigenous allies fought with Cortés, evening their numbers 4. Disease ravaged the Aztec empire 1. Tenochtitlan fell in 1521, followed by the rest of the empire 1. The conquest of the Inca Empire 2. Francisco Pizarro was a seasoned conquistador by the time he encountered the Inca empire 3. Took the Inca ruler Atahualpa hostage in 1532 4. Horses and steel gave the Spanish much greater lethality than Inca warriors 5. Pizarro invited Inca nobles to a meeting and massacred them, depriving the empire of leadership 2. Indigenous allies made these conquests possible 6. Cortés found willing allies against the Aztec empire 1. Aztec tribute requirements and taxes alienated other city-states 2. Aztec religious ceremonies often used other people from other city-states as sacrifices 3. Aztec expansion had killed many subjected peoples 1. Pizarro also took advantage of anti-Inca resentments 1. Inca had broken up rival city-states, resettling their populations 2. Pizarro arrived in the midst of a power struggle after the recent death of an emperor and his successor I. The Birth of Spanish America 1. Encomiena system rewarded Spanish conquerors with people to work their land 1. Spaniards had the responsibility to Christianize them 2. Based on a system used during the conquest of the Moors 3. Farmers who paid tribute to Aztec or Inca now paid to the Spanish 4. Spanish established encomiendas out of existing communities with their own indigenous nobles, calledcaciques 2. Joining of Spanish and Indigenous societies: Mexico becomes “New Spain” 5. Importance of women 1. Lack of Spanish women led to intermarriage between Spanish men and indigenous women 1. Malinche 1. (i) An indigenous woman, actually named Malintzin 2. (ii) One of the female slaves given to Cortés as he traveled Mexico 3. (iii) Integral in the capture of Moctezuma 4. (iv) Married one of Cortés’s men 1. Techichpotzín 1. (i) Daughter of Moctezuma 2. (ii) Became Isabel Moctezuma 3. (iii) Her wealth allowed her to attract several Spanish and indigenous husbands 1. Children of Spanish-indigenous union were known as “mestizo” 1. Usually inherited little or nothing from their fathers 2. Faced discrimination 1. Spanish women arrived in greater numbers, mostly after fighting was complete, but there were exceptions 1. Isabel de Guevara 1. (i) Helped conquer Argentina and Paraguay in the 1530s–40s 2. (ii) Wrote a letter to the Spanish crown, detailing the importance of women in that expedition 1. Inés Suárez 1. (i) Arrived in America in 1537 in search of her husband, but found he was dead 2. (ii) Became the mistress of the conqueror of Chile 3. (iii) Became legendary for her actions in repelling an indigenous attack 1. Religious conversions 1. Indigenous Americans were accustomed to accepting the religion of their rulers 2. Spanish erected churches on sites already holy to indigenous Americans 3. Spanish often converted indigenous people in mass ceremonies, without instruction 1. Transitions to Spanish rule 1. The fully sedentary peoples of Mexico survived conquest far better than did the Tupí 2. Former imperial subjects nevertheless suffered 1. Spanish often demanded greater tribute than from Aztecs or Inca 2. The mita labor draft in the Andes required more arduous labor under the Spanish

CHAPTER 2
Colonial Crucible I. Colonial Economics 1. Mining for precious metals shaped colonial economics and organization 1. Gold 1. The first precious metal to attract the attention of Europeans 2. Early in the colonial process, a Caribbean gold rush contributed to the destruction of the Arawak population 1. Silver 1. Became most important precious metal in the Spanish colonies 2. Mines opened in 1540s 1. Zacatecas (Mexico) 1. (i) Mine built in an area without sedentary indigenous population 2. (ii) Attracted indigenous migrants from central Mexico for labor 1. Potosí (Peru) 1. (i) Deep shaft mines built on mountain plateaus 2. (ii) Incorporated indigenous smelting techniques 3. (iii) Became the most populous city in America in the 1600s 4. (iv) The need for supplies created a secondary economy around the mines 1. Mining zones created a space for the mingling of different indigenous and European peoples 1. Economic priorities of the Spanish crown shaped political organization 1. The “royal fifth” – a 20 percent tax on mining — was the major source of revenue 2. Colonial governments organized to secure tax 1. Called “viceroyalties” 1. (i) Ruled by a viceroy sent from Spain 2. (ii) Each had a high court and an archbishop 1. “New Spain” 1. (i) Modern Mexico, Central America and Caribbean 2. (ii) Viceregal capital at Mexico City 1. “Peru” 1. (i) Includes much of South America 2. (ii) Viceregal capital at Lima 1. “New Grenada” 1. (i) Modern Colombia 2. (ii) Third viceroyalty in 1717 3. (iii) Created to support gold mining 1. “Rio de la Plata” 1. (i) Modern Argentina 2. (ii) 1776 3. (iii) Created to stop untaxed exports of silver through the region 1. Peru and Mexico remained center of Spanish colonization 1. Sugar became the central economic activity of Brazil 1. Rich soil made Northeast Brazil the focus of colonial activity 1. Pernambuco and the Bay of All Saints were centers 2. Taxes on sugar were major source of income to Portuguese crown 1. Sugar shapes society 1. Sugar cane had to be milled and boiled down for export 2. “Mill Lords” 1. Planters wealthy enough to build sugar mills become “Mill Lords” or “senhores de engenho” 2. Stood at the center of society and economy 3. Each owned hundreds of slaves 4. Whole regions of growers relied on the mill for processing 1. Plantations undercut the growth of urban centers 1. Brazil remained less populous and profitable than Spanish America 1. Outside of Northeast, Brazil was sparsely settled 1. Amazonian northwest inhabited mostly by semisedentary indigenous tribes 2. Other interior regions were inaccessible except by canoe routes 3. Cattle ranching kept the “sertão” undeveloped and poor 1. Portugal focused on profitable outposts in Africa and Asia 2. More loosely governed by viceroys I. A Power Called Hegemony 1. Hegemonic power defined 1. Does not rely on force, but on some consent by those governed 2. A form of power that is resilient, powerful, and often damaging to those at the bottom 3. Convinces people to accept their inferior place 2. Example: Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz 4. Hoped to attend the University of Mexico 5. She was well qualified 1. Began reading at age 3 2. Taught herself Latin 3. At 17, she stumped a jury of University professors 4. Renowned for her poetry 1. Women in New Spain had limited options 1. To marry 2. To join a convent 1. Sor Juana joined the convent because it offered some measure of independence 2. Sor Juana became a prominent intellectual 1. Studied mathematics 2. Composed music 3. Wrote controversial poetry 4. Challenged prominent church scholars 1. Church fathers believed it unnatural for a woman to engage in such practices 2. Sor Juana consented, selling all of her books and instruments 3. Declared herself “the worst of women” 1. Hegemonic forces 4. Religion offers a clear example of hegemony at work 1. The Catholic church was a means of European control 1. The Church’s leaders were all of European descent 2. The “divine right” of the church made it heretical to question its leaders 1. 2. The Church was omnipresent in colonial life 1. The Church controlled educational institutions 2. Church calendars structured daily life 3. Church sacraments marked important life events 4. Towns and cities were named for saints, and each had a patron saint 1. 3. Because the Church was everywhere, and its teachings divinely inspired, converts had no ability to challenge it, accepting an inferior position 1. Patriarchy 1. Fathers ruled at all levels of colonial society 1. Church hierarchy was exclusively male 2. Iberian law based on patriarchy 1. Iberian concepts of honor shaped the daily lives of men and women 1. For men, honor dictated: 1. Defending the virginity of daughters 2. Sexual exclusivity of wives 3. Both would be defended with bloodshed 1. 2. For women, honor dictated avoiding extramarital contact with men 1. Independent-minded women were targeted 2. Women often resisted 1. (i) Magic provided a way to challenge this control 2. (ii) Most challenges to men demanded that they live up to the roles demanded by honor 3. (iii) Economics shaped opportunities for women 1. (1) Property was a prerequisite for honor 2. (2) Poor women struggled to achieve honor 3. (3) Honor was virtually impossible for enslaved women 4. (4) Indigenous women were more able to live outside of this system I. A Process Called Transculturation 1. New Latin American cultures emerged from the interaction of European, African, and indigenous peoples 1. Cultural influence followed power relations 1. Those on top of the hierarchy dictated the structures of society 2. Those below were able to make more subtle contributions 1. Religion and transculturation 1. The Church had great power in establishing the structures of religion 2. Resistance occurred in the spiritual sphere 1. Slaves preserved African religious traditions by practicing them under the guise of Catholic religion 2. Indigenous artists brought their own sacred imagery into representations of Catholic iconography 3. Virgin of Guadalupe 1. (i) Patron saint of Mexico 2. (ii) Allegedly appeared on a sacred Aztec sight 3. (iii) Was often depicted with dark skin 4. (iv) Frequently referred to by her Nahuatl name, Tonantzin 1. African practices influenced Catholicism in Brazil and Caribbean 1. Cities were an important site of transculturation 1. Many indigenous people migrated to urban areas 2. Urban slaves had greater freedom than slaves on plantations 1. Able to locate and associate with others from the same parts of Africa 2. Able to join free black people in lay Catholic brotherhoods 1. Slaves and free blacks worked as artisans, often alongside poor whites 1. Rural areas had different patterns of transculturation 2. Plantation slaves were highly restricted and isolated 3. Rural indigenous people lived more separately 4. Whites were also more isolated 1. Forced to mingle and interact with other groups 2. Accelerated the influence of African and indigenous culture 3. Haciendas, or large estates, relied on indigenous workforces 1. Transculturation was a blessing and a curse for subjugated groups 1. Virgin of Guadalupe 1. Nahuatl speakers claimed her as their icon, influencing the practice of Catholicism to their benefit 2. Acceptance of the Virgin also marked consent to Catholic religion and Iberian domination 1. Garcilaso and Guaman Poma 1. Spokesmen for native people of Peru 2. Both wrote on the indigenous perspective of colonization 3. Strongly endorsed Christianity and Spanish rule 1. Transculturation and hegemony often went hand-in-hand I. The Fringes of Colonization 1. Fringes lay outside the economic centers of colonies 1. More sparsely populated 2. Less economic stratification 3. More subsistence living 4. Those on the bottom of the hierarchy became more important 1. Mixed race people gained greater respect 2. Slaves were better treated because replacements were more difficult to bring in 1. Paraguay case study 1. Colonization characterized by large missions for conversion of indigenous people 2. Remote and landlocked 3. Became permeated by Guaraní influence 1. Guaraní became primary language of social interaction 2. Racial mixing made Paraguay notably mestizo 3. Chief export – yerba maté – was indigenous 1. Rio de la Plata – “River of Silver” 1. Less isolated than Paraguay 1. Ports of Montevideo and Buenos Aires 2. Silver from Potosí traveled through 3. Capital at Buenos Aires 1. Cattle ranching economy 2. Ongoing raids by indigenous societies 3. Abundance 1. Even slaves were able to eat as much beef as they wanted 2. Horses were easily available 1. Chile 1. Isolated despite huge coastline 1. Subordinate to viceroyalty of Peru 2. No direct communication with Crown 1. Chile could not offer settlers many indigenous servants 1. Araucanos had resisted Inca conquest 2. Had fought Spanish for centuries 1. Grew wheat to supply Peruvian mines 1. Elsewhere on the fringe 2. Spanish fringe areas were often cattle frontiers 1. Gauchos — cowboys of the Rio de la Plata 2. Gausos — Chilean cowboys 3. Vaqueros — Mexican cowboys 1. Caribbean basement remained fringe area 1. Other colonial powers challenged Spanish authority 1. Hispaniola and Jamaica 2. Belize became English colony in Central America 1. 2. Cuba was cattle country until 1700s 1. New Granada was a complex mix 1. Dense populations of fully sedentary indigenous people 2. No silver mines 3. Fringe areas included rainforests and cattle frontier 4. Fell between fringe and core in economic terms 1. Fringe economic boom 1. Rio de la Plata found European markets for cattle hides 2. Cuba and Venezuela found plantation crops 1. Cuba — sugar and coffee 2. Venezuela — cacao 1. Caribbean plantations produced huge influx of slaves 1. Brazilian fringe 2. Missions were chief representatives of Iberian control 3. Cattle ranching 4. São Paulo 1. Backwater in the 1600s 2. Founded by Jesuit missionaries 3. Relied on indigenous, not African labor 4. Population was mestizo, in contrast to the black and white Brazilian coast 1. Bandeirantes 1. Chased fugitive slaves 2. Roamed Brazilian interior 3. Often attacked missions 4. Conversed in Tupí language 5. Extended influence of Portuguese crown in Brazil 6. Destroyed Palmares 1. A quilombo — settlement of fugitive slaves – in Brazil 2. Thrived for much of the 1600s 3. Zumbi – warrior king 1. (i) Fought Bandeirantes 2. (ii) Beloved Afro-Brazilian icon 1. Discovered gold in the backlands in late 1600s 1. Prompted wave of settlers to interior 2. Gold fields called Minas Gerais, “general mines” 3. Bandeirantes pushed aside by slave owners 1. Gold boom 1. Influx of slaves to the mines 2. Crown begins to collect “the royal fifth” 3. Cities built near mines 4. Vila Rico de Ouro Preto 1. First large inland settlement 2. Capital of Minas Gerais 1. 5. Financed art of Aleijadinho 2. Aided the economic integration of Brazil 1. New settlements 2. Capital changed to Rio de Janeiro I. Late Colonial Transformations 1. 1750s – Iberian crowns seek to tighten control 1. Known as Bourbon or Pombaline reforms 1. Bourbon dynasty in Spain 2. Marquis de Pombal in Portugal 1. Effort to rationalize and modernize overseas government 1. Improve profitability 2. Subservience to the crown 1. Reforms 1. Raised taxes 2. Improved administration to collect taxes 3. State-controlled monopolies oversee trade and production 4. Limited production of products that Europe produced 1. Wine 2. Cloth 3. Meant to insure continued importation of European goods 1. 5. Loosened shipping restrictions but asserted trade exclusivity 1. Reaction in the Americas 1. Taxes fell on poorest who were unable to pay 2. Monopolies increased prices 3. Unemployment 4. Widespread economic revolts 5. Native-born Spanish-Americans and Portuguese-Americans had most at stake 1. European-born received preferential treatment by colonial administrators 2. Expulsion of Jesuit order 3. Rising numbers of mestizos threatened from below 1. Racial mixing 1. Social and professional interaction 2. Intermarriage and consensual partnerships common among lower class 1. Xica da Silva 1. African mother, Portuguese father 2. Mistress of royal diamond contractor 3. Provided her with honor and signs of upper class 4. Looked down on some Europeans, challenging caste system 1. Caste system 1. Fixed categories corresponding to race 2. Categories accounted for, and ranked, racial mixtures 1. European 2. African 3. European-African 4. European father–indigenous mother 5. Indigenous-African 6. Indigenous 1. Intermarriage between these groups created new categories 2. Caste paintings commissioned to illustrate categories 3. Spanish Crown began selling “gracias al sacar” 1. Allowed low-caste people to buy official whiteness 2. Raised revenue 3. Angered whites 4. Moving up into whiteness endorsed logic of caste system I. Countercurrents: Colonial Rebellions 1. Aftershocks of conquest 1. Rebellion of Gonzalo Pizarro 1. Carried out by conquistadors of Peru 2. Reaction to new laws limiting encomiendas 3. Killed viceroy 4. Pizarro beheaded for treason 1. Indigenous revolts, 1500–1800 1. Taki Onqoy, Andes, 1560, marked by religious revival among indigenous 2. 1680 Pueblo rebellion in Mexico expelled Spanish from land for a decade 3. 1760 Yucatec Maya revolt 1. Rebellions against Bourbon Reforms 1. Mostly economic rebellions 1. 1749 Venezuelan Cacao growers rebel against monopoly 2. Uprising in Quito, Ecuador 1765–56 3. Comunero uprising in Colombia against taxes and monopolies 1. Uprisings often created short-lived cross-caste alliances 2. Rebellions often claimed loyalty to the king, against bad government 1. Quilombos and Palenques 3. Palmares in Brazil 4. Called palenques in Caribbean 2. French-style conspiracies in Brazil – 1789 and 1798 5. Republican ideas from French and U.S. revolutions inspire some Brazilians 6. Conspiracy in Ouro Preto 1. Betrayed before it could begin 2. Army officer Tiradentes becomes patriotic martyr 1. Tailors’ Rebellion in Bahia 1. Centered among tailors in Bahia 2. Majority were black and mulatto 1. Rebellion of Tupac Amaru II, 1780–83 1. Mestizo Tupac Amaru II claimed Inca royal descent 2. Used name of Tupac Amaru, Inca resistance leader 3. Rebellion was declared “anti-Peninsular,” the name for Spanish-born 4. Called for alliance between American-born whites, mestizos, and indigenous 5. Rebellion became primarily indigenous 6. Set off revolt of Tupac Catari 7. Killed perhaps 100,000 8. Affected behavior of Peru’s elite in coming independence wars

CHAPTER 3
Independence

I. Revolution and War in Europe 1. The incompetent rule of Carlos IV in Spain 1. Shirked duties of governance 2. Allowed a hated minister to rule 3. Costly wars bankrupted the government 1. Resulted in higher taxes 2. Sale of high offices 3. Incompetents in power 4. Government foreclosure of long-term loans 1. War with England 1796 1. Wiped out Spanish navy 2. Crippled Atlantic trade 1. Portugal remained allied with England 2. The French Revolution 1. Challenged monarchy based on divine right 2. Executed the king and queen 3. Argued for popular sovereignty 4. Napoloen set out to “liberate” Europe from monarchs 3. England 5. Had made liberal reforms 6. Had elected legislature along with limited monarchy 7. Allied with Spain and Portugal against Napoleon 4. Portugal 8. 1807 — Portuguese refuse to close ports and declare war on England 9. France invades in response 10. Prince João and royal court fled to Rio de Janeiro 5. Spain 11. Carlos IV and his heir imprisoned by Napoleon 12. Napoleon places his own brother on throne of Spain 6. Portuguese Court in Brazil 13. Maintains Legitimacy of Government 1. Crown authority had inspired obedience 2. Royal court now operating within Brazil 3. Wealthy Europeans flood Rio de Janeiro 1. Presence of Court favors Brazilian elite 1. New wealth 2. Access to the King’s ear 3. João ends Portuguese trade monopoly, allows Brazil to trade widely 1. Spanish Crisis 1. Imprisonment of King creates legitimacy crisis 1. Spanish government not entirely destroyed 2. Resistance movements in Spain send representatives to a resistance committee called the Central Junta 1. Central Junta 1. Chosen entirely from within Spain 2. No representation of Spanish Americans 3. Spanish Americans reject rule of Junta 1. Profess loyalty to Fernando VII as legitimate ruler 2. Rejected the ideas that Americas were colonies 1. (i)Spain and Americas were co-equal kingdoms of Spain 2. (ii) Loyal to Fernando, not subservient to Spain 1. Begin forming local juntas to rule in Fernando’s name 2. Formed in open meetings of town councils called “cabildo abierto” 1. Constitution of Cadiz 1. 1810 — Spanish resistance calls for liberal constitution with input from Spain and Americas 2. Would have profoundly altered Spanish empire 3. Never fully implemented I. Spanish-American Rebellions Begin, 1810–15 1. Who were the rebels? 1. Creole Patriots 1. American-born whites 2. In 1700s, growing resentment toward privilege of Peninsular Spanish 1. Spanish-born whites were preferred for important posts 2. Accumulated greater wealth 1. Non-whites care little for this rivalry at the top 1. Resentment directed at Creoles 2. Creoles kept people of mixed-race down 3. Plenty of reasons to rebel, but not against Peninsulares 1. Mexican independence 1. Background to rebellion 1. Most profitable colony 2. Peninsulares were only 1 percent of population 3. Creole resentment ran high 1. 1808 cabildo of Mexico City 1. Called a representative assembly to rule for Fernando VII 2. Peninsulares unseated the viceroy to prevent assembly 3. Creoles became angrier 4. 1910 Creole conspiracy in mining regions sparks rebellion of indigenous and mestizo peasants 1. Father Manuel Hidalgo 1. Nonconformist intellectual priest 1. Read banned French books 2. Violated celibacy rules 3. Feared arrest for role in conspiracy 1. Addressed a crowd at his church 1. Declared need to defend Mexico against Peninsular usurpers of Fernando VII’s authority 2. Spoke in religious language 3. Americans vs. Europeans 1. (i) Peninsulares as descendents of Spanish conquistadors who stole indigenous peoples’ land 2. (ii) “Long live the Virgin of Guadalupe, death to the Spaniards” 1. Poor, rural people join rebellion 1. Men, women, children, livestock 2. Weapons were farming tools 3. Peninsulares and Creoles killed in large numbers 4. Hidalgo’s army reached 80,000 5. Undisciplined and out of control 6. Army dispersed after a few months 7. Hidalgo captured, executed 1. Father José María Morelos 1. Officer in Hidalgo’s rebellion 2. Mestizo 3. More organized and disciplined army 4. Clear goals 1. End to slavery 2. End of caste system 3. End of tribute paid by indigenous people 4. All born in the Americans were “Americanos” 1. Declared Mexican independence 1813 2. Attracted few Creoles 3. Morelos captured and executed 1. Small bands of rebels continued fighting colonial rule 1. Peru’s slower start 1. Creoles wary of mobilizing indigenous population due to history of Tupac Amaru II 2. Remained relatively quiet as rebellions began elsewhere 2. “Fringe colonies” of Argentina and Venezuela 3. Creoles were less cautious 4. Both countries had many horses and horsemen 5. Cabildos abiertas in Caracas and Buenos Aires 6. “Taking off the Mask of Fernando” 1. Rebellions begin by professing loyalty to Fernando VII 2. Eventually embrace complete independence 1. 1811 — Venezuelan republic collapsed 1. Earthquake seems a sign of divine disapproval 2. Llaneros 1. Cowboys of the interior 2. Do not support elite urban Creoles of Caracas 3. Defend the rule of Fernando VII 1. Argentina 1. Greater military advantage 1. In 1806-07, British incursions into Rio de la Plata 2. Local militias, not Spanish, defeated British 1. 2. May 1810, Peninsular rule ends in Buenos Aires 2. Other parts of Rio de la Plata do not follow suit 3. Buenos Aires fights on its own, sometimes with or against armies from other provinces I. The Patriots’ Winning Strategy: Nativism 1. Creoles need support from below to win independence 1. Exploited majority was uninterested in or unaware of Republicanism or liberal ideas 2. Creoles had little interest in changing a social hierarchy they dominated 2. “Nativism” 3. Idea of an American identity based on birthplace 1. All born in the Americas were Americanos 2. Joins classes and races against Spanish 3. Emotionally appealing, mobilized anti-foreign resentments 4. “Who should govern? The people! Who are the people? Americanos!” 1. Few Creole patriot leaders wanted actual equality 1. Needed to mobilize support 2. Intended to simply replace Peninsulares at top of hierarchy 1. Brazilian independence 1. Having the royal court in Rio de Janeiro kept Brazil relatively stable in 1810s 2. Discontent begins 1. Having royal court in Brazil was expensive 2. Unpopular and costly war with Spanish neighbors to the south 3. João restricts slave trade 1. Moves toward independence 1. Influx of foreigners 1. Bring wealth to Brazil 2. Bring European liberal ideas 1. 2. 1817 — attempted liberal revolution in Pernambuco 1. Declared republic 2. Called each other “patriot” 3. Lasted only a few weeks before it was repressed 1. Portuguese actions 1. Portuguese assembly demands João’s return after defeat of Napoleon 2. João declares Brazil a kingdom, not a colony 3. Assembly wants Brazil returned to colonial status 4. João returns to Lisbon in 1821 5. Leaves Prince Pedro in Rio 1. Rio control falters 1. Several provinces create liberal juntas 2. Send their own representatives to Lisbon 1. Brazilian Party 1. 1822 — Rio de Janeiro elites form Brazilian party to resist recolonization 2. Uses nativist rhetoric 1. “Brazilian” excludes slaves 2. Accepts Portuguese-born “converts” 3. Prince Pedro becomes a supporter 1. Independence 1. Portuguese assembly demands Pedro return to Lisbon 2. Pedro publicly declares his refusal to return from palace balcony 3. Declares Brazilian independence as constitutional monarchy 4. Calls for representatives to write a constitution 5. Portuguese army resistance quickly defeated I. Patriot Victories in Spanish America 1. Return of Fernando 1. Napoleon defeated at Waterloo 2. Fernando returns to power 3. Renounces Constitution of Cadiz 4. Sets out to crush Spanish-American rebellions 5. Rebels forced to commit to independence 2. Mexico 6. Morelos’s armies continued to fight, but unable to defeat Royalists 7. 1820 – Fernando faces revolt 1. Liberal revolt to reinstate Cadiz constitution 2. Hurts mystique of the crown 1. Creole-guerrilla alliance 1. Creole army under Agustín de Iturbide allies with Vicente Guerrero, leader of guerrilla movements 2. Alliance promises 1. Independence 2. Constitutional monarchy 3. Social union 1. The monarchical solution 1. Iturbide enters Mexico city 2. Crowds call for his coronation as Augustín I 3. Iturbide had weak claim to monarchy 1. He was Creole 2. Could not claim divine right 1. 4. Pushed from power after a few years 1. Armies from Venezuela and Argentina converge on Peru 1. Simón Bolívar 1. “The Liberator” 2. Involved in Venezuelan independence from the start 1. Had been defeated by royalist llaneros 2. Won llaneros to his side 1. (i) Nativist rhetoric 2. (ii) Physical prowess 3. (iii) Base in Orinoco plains 1. 1819 — surprised Spanish forces in the Andes 2. Captured Bógota 3. Caracas and Quito (1822) 4. Controlled all of northern South America 1. José de San Martín 1. Led combined Argentine-Chilean army 2. Crossed Andes to surprise Spanish 3. Captured Chilean capital 4. Marched north to Lima 1. Viceroy fled Lima 2. San Martín declares Peru independent 1. 5. Unable to complete victory in Peru 1. Meeting in Guayaquil 1. San Martín and Bolívar meet 2. Confidential discussions 3. San Martín returns to Chile 4. Bolívar prepares final assault on Spanish power 1. Final battles 1. Bolívar takes two years to equip force 2. 1824: liberates two more countries 1. Bolivia takes his name 2. Battle of Ayacucho 1. (i) Fought at high altitude 2. (ii) Captured last Spanish viceroy 1. 3. Only Cuba and Puerto Rico remained Spanish I. Unfinished Revolutions 1. Creoles took control of new republics 1. Postcolonial – independent, but still shaped by colonialism 2. Hierarchy did not change except at the top 3. Patriarchy was unchanged 1. Patriot women, however, became powerful symbols 1. Manuela Beltrán 1. (i) Trampled royal edict 2. (ii) Colombia’s Comunero rebellion 1. Juana Azurduy 1. (i) Bolivian 2. (ii) Dressed as a man 3. (iii) Led cavalry charge, capturing enemy flag 4. (iv) Mestiza who married up 5. (v) Father killed by peninsular who went unpunished 6. (vi) Joined a convent but was expelled for rebellion 7. (vii) Spoke indigenous languages 1. Policarpa Salavarietta 1. (i) Message carrier for rebels 2. (ii) Executed in Bogotá 1. Leaders become disillusioned 1. Bolívar believes Spanish Americans unfit for government 2. Becomes authoritarian 2. Nativist rhetoric created expectations for social change among lower classes I. Countercurrents: The Gaze of Outsiders 1. Foreign travelers come to Latin America after independence 1. Missionaries 2. Business 3. Scientists 2. Explosion of foreign companies in Latin America 4. Sixty British firms in Rio de Janeiro 5. In 1833, Brazil is Great Britain’s third largest market 3. Many travelers attracted to Latin America for its exoticism 4. Many brought a scornful, arrogant attitude 6. “Vilest place I’ve ever seen” wrote one British diplomat of Rio de la Plata 7. Criticized Catholicism as superstition 8. Incapable of self-government 5. Frances Calderón de la Barca 9. Scottish woman married to Spanish diplomat in Mexico City 10. Called Mexico City “one of the noblest-looking cities” 11. Wrote sympathetically on religion, indigenous peoples 12. Critiqued lack of education for women 6. Travelers’ accounts offer subtle problems for historians 13. Example: view of wet nurses in Brazil 1. In Brazil, many wet nurses were slaves 2. Slave wet nurse was a status symbol 3. Account describes the opulent dress of one wet nurse 4. Another offers a wet nurse for sale because her child has died

CHAPTER 4
Postcolonial Blues I. Liberal Disappointment 1. Split personality: Liberal ideas meet colonial traditions 1. Strongly traditional societies 1. Collective responsibility over individual freedom 2. Religious orthodoxy over religious freedom 3. Hierarchical society with exploitative labor system 1. Promise of legal equality for all races had been precondition of mass support for independence 1. Caste classifications removed from census forms and parish records 2. White leaders still looked at mixed race populations as a problem 1. Conservative leaders emerge in defense of traditional values 1. Keep common people in “their place” 2. Rule by elites 3. Conservative ideas had appeal to many common people 1. Church-State conflicts 2. Church represented reverence for colonial traditions 3. Liberals wanted freedom of religion and church-state separation 1. Support of protestant merchants 2. Educational reformers 1. 4. Conservatives wanted Catholicism to remain official religion 1. Pious, traditional peasants 2. Landowners 3. Winning issue for Conservatives 1. Liberal-Conservative divide shaped Latin America 2. Often formed into Liberal Party/Conservative Party conflict 3. Centerpiece of electoral debates in new republics 1. Economic devastation 4. Wars for independence destroyed economies 1. Mexican and Peruvian silver mines hardest hit 2. Shafts flooded 3. Needed injection of capital to recover 1. Little capital available 1. Latin America had few banks before 1850 2. Little interest in investment by foreign banks 3. Foreign traders controlled international commerce 4. Wealthy Creoles preferred to invest in land 1. Lack of transportation infrastructure 1. Few navigable rivers, high mountains, thick forests 2. Merchants kept quantities low, margins high 3. Expanding trade required new infrastructure 1. Roads 2. Bridges 3. Ports 4. Railroads, eventually 1. 4. Insufficient capital to build 1. Struggle to create governing institutions 1. Rebuilding governments was expensive 2. Armies were overdeveloped 1. Top-heavy with salaried officers 2. Difficulty paying created dangerous conflict with military 1. 3. Republican institutions had little legitimacy 1. Fragile republics 1. Understaffed governments 2. Difficult to make people pay taxes 1. Relied on import/export, high-yield taxes 2. Borrowed money 3. Often defaulted 1. Liberals had no resources to effect the sweeping changes they proposed 2. Collapse of republics 1. Military overthrows became common 2. Presidents often held office for only days 1. Conservative ascendancy by 1830s I. Patronage Politics and Caudillo Leadership 1. Many politicians viewed government as means of personal enrichment 1. Control of government jobs, pensions, public works 1. Distributed as reward for loyalty to friends and followers 2. Personal relationships often replaced political platforms 1. Hypothetical example of “Don Miguel” 1. Use office to secure benefits for family, friends, informal clients 2. Exchange for future favors 3. Support had little to do with principle, but was about loyalty 4. Clients would vote as their patron wished 5. Don Miguel would be a client of someone higher 6. Highest patron would be a caudillo 1. Caudillos 1. Who was a caudillo? 1. Highest party or faction leader 1. In office, the president 2. Out of office, the second most powerful in the country 1. 2. Frequently large landowners 2. Use wealth to maintain private armies 3. Often war heroes 1. The first were prominent veterans of independence 2. Embodied masculine ideals 1. 5. Cultivated a common touch – identity with average people 2. Ability to communicate with and manipulate followers 3. Focus on personal leadership 1. Juan Manuel de Rosas 1. Dominated Argentina from 1829–52 1. Rancher from the cattle fields called the pampa 2. Used frontier militias as backing to control Buenos Aires 1. 2. Used violence against opponents 2. Strong use of propaganda 1. Put picture on church altars 2. Supporters wore red ribbons 3. Anyone caught without a ribbon could be beaten on the street 1. 4. Closely identified with gauchos and poor black workers against urban elites 2. Made war on indigenous communities to open land for ranching 3. Repelled British and French interventions 1. Antonio López de Santa Anna 1. Mexican caudillo 2. Creole who fought against Hidalgo and Morelos 3. Helped overthrow Iturbide 4. In 1830s–40s, seemed to overthrow presidents at will 5. Made himself president repeatedly as both Conservative and Liberal 1. Central America 1. Never rebelled, became independent on Mexico’s coattails 2. Rafael Carrera 1. Overthrew liberal leader Morazán 2. Rural mestizo 3. Protected lands of indigenous people 4. Protected Catholic church 5. Allowed the United Republics of Central America to collapse into minirepublics of today 1. José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia 1. Ruled Paraguay from 1814–40 2. Unusual caudillo 3. Doctor of theology, not a war hero 4. Called himself “el Supremo” 5. Tried to seal Paraguay from European influence 6. Spied on and arrested some European visitors 7. Paraguay did become independent and prosperous 1. Constitution and republic 1. Constitutions constantly re-written 2. Most countries were ruled by conservative caudillos 3. Federalism often led to the breakup of large countries 1. Greater Colombia into Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador 2. Central American Republic into five parts I. Brazil’s Different Path 1. Maintained colonial institutions 1. European monarchy 2. Church-State link 3. Embrace of slavery 2. Stable and prosperous 4. Provincial governors appointed, not elected 5. Army loyal to the emperor 6. Coffee produced revenue 3. Liberal hopes and disappointments 7. Pedro I claimed to be a Liberal, but ruled as authoritarian 1. Ruled “by the grace of God” 2. 1824 constitution called for Senate appointed for life 3. Emperor’s power virtually unchecked 1. Pedro became unpopular, giving Liberals hope 1. Presence of so many Portuguese angered ordinary Brazilians 2. “Brazil for Brazilians” 1. Death of his father made Pedro heir to Portuguese throne 1. Renounced throne 2. Prompted worries of recolonization 3. Anti-Portuguese sentiment rose 4. Abdicated Brazilian throne, returned to Portugal 5. Left his five-year-old son to rule 6. Regents had to rule for him until he came of age 1. Regency years, 1831–40 1. The regents were liberals 1. Reduced size of army 2. Gave greater authority to provincial officials 1. 2. Liberals quickly sought to regain greater power 2. Liberals needed support of common people 1. Raised nativist rhetoric 2. Rebelled in four provinces 3. Slaves became involved in rebellions 1. 4. Some elite Liberals became afraid 1. Prince Pedro elevated to the throne at 14 2. Rebuilt imperial army 3. Canceled other liberal reforms I. Continuities in Daily Life 1. Daily life remained mostly unchanged 1. Indigenous communities maintained autonomy 1. Subsistence farming 2. Little contact with republican institutions 1. Mixed-race peasants 1. Outnumbered indigenous in some places (Colombia) 2. Worked as attached workers, or peons 1. Lived on the property of a large landowner 2. Became his clients, and he their patron 3. Worked part-time for the patron 1. 3. Many peasants cleared forests to tend to their own plots 1. Africans and African-descended people 1. Enslaved in Brazil and Cuba 2. Devoted to cultivating export crops 3. Brazil important record number of African slaves 1. Despite English-inspired prohibition on trade 2. Laws on the books “for the English to see” 1. 4. Cuba benefitted from outlawing of slavery in other Caribbean islands 1. Importing huge numbers of slaves 2. Becoming “one big sugar factory” 1. Landowners held the most power 1. Eliminated merchant guilds to promote free trade 1. Cut costs 2. Wiped out local manufacturing 1. 2. Reliance on agricultural exports gives landowners more clout 1. Gave landowners more political influence 2. Urban merchants had fewer clients and followers 1. Transculturation encouraged by nativist rhetoric and landowner power 1. Landowners 1. Fewer maintained city homes 2. Countryside now seen as defining native identity 1. 2. Mestizo cultural forms gain acceptance 1. Creates distinction between Americanos and Spanish 2. Folk dances seen as signifiers of national culture 1. (i) Mexican jarabes 2. (ii) Colombian bambucos 1. 3. Latin American literature 1. Played a role in creating national identity in mid 1800s 2. Costumbrismo 1. (i) Popular literary form 2. (ii) Focuses on lives of common people 3. (iii) Published in newspapers 4. (iv) Performed on stage 1. Nativism 1. Expulsion of Spaniards from Mexico 2. Rosista publicists created Pancho Lugares 1. Gaucho character 2. Mocked Europeans 1. Lower-class unrest 1. Few challenges to elite, Creole authority 2. Caste War of Yucatán 1. Maya uprising 2. Inspired by messages from a talking cross 3. To cleanse land of whites and mestizos 4. Called themselves Cruzob — “people of the cross” 1. 3. Bahían slave conspiracy, 1835 1. Mâles – Arabic-speaking African slaves 2. Alienated Christian slaves from joining 1. Cultural Hegemony 1. White minority rule 2. Relied on the idea of “civilization” for control 1. Emulation of European model 2. Required acceptance of a civilized ruling class 1. Writing 1. Spanish and Portuguese remained languages of law, administration, long-distance communication 2. Most Latin Americans could neither read nor write 3. Written word central to new national culture 1. (i) Written laws in legislature 2. (ii) Published debates in newspapers 1. Rhetorical skill central to political life 2. Glamour associated with writing 1. (i) Proper, formal poetry 2. (ii) Reciting literature, philosophy 1. University education open only to men 1. Lives of women 1. Women largely excluded from major changes of independence 2. Achieved fame by connections to powerful men or by breaking gender rules — or both 1. Domitila de Castro 1. (i) Known by her title, Marqueza de Santos 2. (ii) Emperor’s mistress 3. (iii) Family received noble titles 4. (iv) Her daughter by the Emperor became a duchess 5. (v) Humiliated his wife, Empress Leopoldina 1. (1) She had helped convince Pedro to declare Brazil independent 2. (2) Died in pregnancy 3. (3) Her death discredited Pedro and contributed to his ouster 1. Encarnación Ezcurra 1. (i) Wife of Argentine caudillo Juan Manuel de Rosas 2. (ii) Important political role, mostly behind the scenes 3. (iii) Took over political affairs when Rosas was away 4. (iv) Corresponded with Rosas over dealings with other caudillos 1. (1) Correspondence shows a tough Rosista 2. (2) Dismissed slanders by enemies – “they will pay dearly” 1. (v) Rosas proclaimed her “Heroine of the Federation” 2. (vi) Her death honors were traditional for a woman 3. (vii) Daughter Manuela stepped into her shoes 1. (1) Managed father’s political affairs 2. (2) Known as “la Niña” 3. (3) Was only able to marry after her father was overthrown 1. Camila O’Gorman 1. (i) Famous for scandal 2. (ii) Friend of Manuela 3. (iii) Ran away with a young priest 1. (1) Rosas’s enemies connected this with moral corruption of Argentina under Rosas 2. (2) Rosas promised to hunt them down 3. (3) Both faced firing squad 1. Patriarchy remained strong 1. Women remained largely confined to home life 2. Poor women worked in homes of elites 3. Prostitution was a standard feature of urban life 4. Eugenia Castro 1. (i) Mistress of Rosas 2. (ii) Six children with him 3. (iii) No recognition for her or family 4. (iv) Remained a servant in his home 5. (v) Rosas invited her to join him in England, but she stayed in Argentina 1. Upper class women remained confined by honor system 1. (i) Honor system was evolving 2. (ii) Post-independence honor system less rigid 1. 2. (1) Poorer women could achieve honor 3. (2) Republican ideals of motherhood and chastity 4. (3) Military service could gain honor for men 1. Caste system less rigid 1. Depended on wealth 1. Economic class was more fluid 2. Black, indigenous, or mixed-race individuals could gain wealth and status more easily 3. Economic power led to status 1. Multiple racial categories were collapsing 2. Two basic class categories 1. Decent people at the top 1. (i) Mostly white 2. (ii) Wealthy 1. “El pueblo” or “o povo,” — the people 1. Upper class defended their position harshly 1. Strict standards of behavior and fashion 2. Based on European models I. Countercurrents: The Power of Outsiders 1. Latin American republics remained oriented toward England, France, United States 2. For Liberals, these epitomized progress and civilization 3. Strong desire for trade with these countries 1. Peru’s guano boom 1. Export of fertilizer – seabird manure 2. Highly prized by European markets 3. Created foreign investment in Peru 4. Enriched the state 1. Financed one of region’s first railroads 2. Public gas lighting 3. Public jobs for “decent people” 1. Little of the boom reached the sierra beyond Lima 1. State relied less on Andean silver and taxes 2. Region was neglected 1. Gunboat diplomacy 1. Each of these countries sent warships to region 1. Defend trade 2. Punish governments, often for debt-payment delays 3. U.S. war on Mexico 1. Mexican government had allowed slave-holding U.S. southerners to settle in the province of Texas 1. Settlers eventually outnumbered Mexicans 2. Mexican state tried to limit regional autonomy 3. Settlers rebelled, declaring Texas independent 1. After losing at the Alamo, Texas won independence 2. Annexed by the United States as a state in 1845 3. Fighting renewed amid Mexican fears of more U.S. expansion 1. Mexico unable to fight off U.S. military 2. United States occupied Mexico City 1. United States took half of Mexico’s territory, now the U.S. West and Southwest
CHAPTER 5
Progress

I. Overview and context 1. Conservative ascendance 1. Promised security and tradition 2. Ill-distribution of benefits 3. Those outside the patronage system look for change 2. Liberal reaction 4. Landowners wanted greater export possibilities 5. Urban dwellers wanted public works 6. Industrialization in Europe 1. Increased interest in Latin American markets 2. New wave of European investment in Latin America 3. Steam and steel transportation 1. Transportation Revolution 1. Steamships overtook old wood sailing ships 1. Faster 2. Carried more cargo 1. Steam-powered railroad replaces mules and carts for overland transport 1. Mules and carts limited quantity of exportable material brought to ports 2. Railroads were expensive, but valuable 1. Opened access to new areas 2. Created agricultural booms 1. Telgraph lines 1. Allowed instant communication 2. Carried electricity 3. 1874 — transAtlantic telegraph connects Brazil to Europe 1. Progress 1. Idea of progress becomes new hegemonic ideal 2. Focused on the model, products, and culture of Europe 3. Export earnings could bring in European goods 4. Fixated on technology 5. Liberal parties ride this wave to power I. Mexico’s liberal reforms 1. Power of the Catholic church 1. Church more powerful in Mexico than anywhere else 1. Church held vast properties 2. Chief moneylending institution 3. Clergy had vast legal exemption called a fuero 4. By Mexican law, 10 percent of income went to Church 1. Ultramontane conservatism 1. Church turned away from progressive priests like Morelos 2. Coming from Rome 1. Church and politics 1. Independence articulated in religious language 2. As Church became more conservative, Liberals became more anti-Church 3. Power of Church was an affront to Progress 1. Liberals attacked the fuero 2. Unproductive wealth of church 1. Conservatives adopt rallying cry: “religion and fueros!” 1. Liberal ascendance 2. Reaction against rule of Santa Anna 3. Led by Juan Alvarez 1. Mestizo caudillo 2. From mountains of southern Mexico 1. Melchor Ocampo 1. Younger, well-educated liberal reformer 2. Mestizo 3. Humble beginnings 4. Gifted intellectual 1. Benito Juárez 1. First fully indigenous man to become governor of a Mexican state 1. Left his Zapotec village for Oaxaca 2. Wore European clothing 3. Studied and practiced law in Oaxaca 1. (i) Defended villagers against abusive priest 2. (ii) Sent to jail 1. Elected to state legislature, congress, and governor of Oaxaca 1. 2. Left his Zapotec identity behind 1. Did not represent Zapotec interests or indigenous communities 2. To call him indio was an insult 3. Used rice powder to lighten complexion 1. Liberal reforms 1. Juárez Law 1. 1855 2. Attacked liberal and ecclesiastical fueros 1. Lerdo law 1. 1856 2. Attacked power of Church 1. Forced to sell off vast properties 2. Jeopardized indigenous communal lands 1. Liberals hoped to encourage individual effort and responsibility 1. Turned many indigenous against Liberal Party 2. Joined Conservatives in defense of tradition 1. Civil War 1. Conservative general overthrew president and dissolved congress 2. Juárez chosen to command Liberal forces 3. Liberals retake Mexico city 4. War bankrupted the state 1. Juárez defaults on Mexican loans 2. Spanish, French, British occupied Veracruz 1. French hoped to expand their influence 2. Invented the term “Latin America” to naturalize their influence 1. Conservatives appeal to Napoleon III in search of a monarch 1. Maximilian 1. Descended from Habsburg royalty 2. Conservatives assured him that Mexico wanted an emperor 1. 2. French invade Mexico 1862 2. Maximilian installed as emperor 1864 1. Juárez leads nationalist reaction 1. Maximilian pays tribute to Hidalgo to solidify his nationalist credentials 2. Juárez a more convincing nationalist leader 3. United States aids Juárez, threatened by French incursion in the Americas 4. French withdraw troops 5. Maximilian captured and executed 1. Juárez becomes president 1. Conservatives permanently discredited in Mexico 2. Church never regains past power I. Other Countries Join the Liberal Trend 1. Colombia 1. Conservative post-independence surge 1. Restored the fuero for clergy 2. Invited Jesuit order to return 1. Liberal resurgence in 1850s 1. Expelled Jesuits again 2. Removed fuero 3. Made tithes voluntary 4. Legalized divorce 1. Tomás Cipriano de Mosquera 1. Liberal caudillo 2. Took power in 1861 3. Two decades of liberal rule 1. Chile 1. Politics marked by conservative stability 2. Only three presidents in three decades 1. Managed elections 2. Export growth 3. Unusual freedom of thought and expression 1. Chile was very different from Mexico 1. Little experience with liberalism 2. Small indigenous population 1. Mapuches 2. Lived in far south 3. Isolated from national community 1. 3. Developed strong export economy 1. Wheat 2. Copper 3. Silver 1. Liberals attacked traditional Church-State connections 1. Church was not as powerful as elsewhere 2. Official religion was attacked as vestige of colonialism 1. Montt 1. Former minister of education 2. President of Chile 3. Leads modernization projects 4. Favored a Liberal for president in 1861 1. Liberals remained in control for three decades 1. Limited church power 2. Modernized capital city of Santiago 3. Rigged elections 1. Central America 1. Followed similar path as other Latin American states 2. Guatemala, El Salvador, Costa Rica, Honduras all joined liberal swell 3. Only Nicaragua resisted 1. Nicaraguan Liberals invited foreign intervention 2. William Walker 1. Fundamentalist Christian from Tennessee 2. Walker attempted, on his own initiative, to colonize Nicaragua for the United States 3. Made himself president with support of Liberals 1. (i) Freedom of religion 2. (ii) English language 3. (iii) Land grants to U.S. immigrants 4. (iv) Legalized slavery 1. Captured and executed by joint central American army I. The Limits of Progress for Women 1. In mid-1800s, women saw few benefits from liberalism 1. Education for women expanded very slowly 2. Women still confined to home life 3. Very few women occupied leading roles in public life 2. A few women achieved fame through writing 4. Gertrudis Gómez de Avellaneda 1. Left native Cuba for Spain 2. Novel Sab banned in Cuba 1. Followed an enslaved man in love with his female owner 2. He sacrifices his life for her 3. She realizes his superiority 4. Literary argument for abolition 1. 3. Mid-century Cuba 1. Plantation slaves grew a third of world’s sugar 2. Cuba offered great opportunities for Spaniards 3. As Cubans fought for independence, Spain kept war away from sugar-growing sectors 4. Revolutionaries reprinted Sab 1. 4. Sab broke social boundaries 1. Discussed interracial love 2. Criticized slavery 1. Juana Manuela Gorriti 1. Writings were feminine and instructive 2. Entered a convent school 3. Family fled Argentina for Bolivia 4. Married Manuel Isidro Belzú, who would become president of Bolivia 5. She moved to Perú after Belzú abandoned her 6. Held tertulias on intellectual subjects 7. Wrote journalistic articles 1. Intended for women 2. Instructions on modern womanhood 1. 8. Served as a battlefield nurse when Spanish vessels attacked 2. Moved to Buenos Aires 1. Clorinda Matto de Turner 1. Gorriti helped launch her career in Lima 2. Sought extracurricular instruction in biology and physics 3. Wrote “Birds without a Nest” 1. Published 1889 2. One of the most important early novels about indigenous life 1. (i) Other works relied on image of romantic savage 2. (ii) Matto depicted them as Peruvians living in the present 3. (iii) Depicts interracial affair between white man and indigenous woman 1. 4. Crusader for indigenous 2. Critical of church 3. Organized tertulias 4. Founded a periodical for women I. Models of Progress 1. Argentine liberal leaders exemplify European obsession and focus on written culture 1. Juan Bautista Alberdi 1. Studied law in Buenos Aires 2. Became a salon radical in 1830s 3. Fled Rosas regime to Montevideo 4. Published “Bases and Points of Departure for the Political Organization of the Argentine Republic” after Rosas was overthrown 5. Eventually became Argentine diplomat in Chile 6. Encouraged European immigration to Argentina 1. Europeans possessed superior qualities 2. “To govern is to populate” 1. 7. Encouraged modern education 2. Believed Argentines should learn English 1. Bartolomé Mitré 1. Prolific writer, speaker, military leader 2. Disputed with Alberdi over place of Buenos Aires 3. Buenos Aires was most important city in Argentina 4. Lacked a good port 5. Steam power allowed vessels to bypass Buenos Aires 6. Tensions kept Buenos Aires out of Argentine Federation 7. Mitré led Buenos Aires forces against Federation 8. Buenos Aires established as capital of a united Argentina 1. Domingo Faustino Sarmiento 1. Most influential Latin American liberal 2. Wrote the anti-Rosas “Civilization and Barbarism” 3. Interest in international cultures 4. Became involved in organization of Chilean public schools 5. Studied education in the United States and Europe 6. Elected president of Argentina while a diplomat in United States 7. Brought U.S. teachers to improve education 1. School enrollment doubled 2. Nearly 100 public libraries built 1. 8. Successfully encouraged wave of European immigration 1. Liberals accepted European scientific racism as well 1. Viewed racial mixing as a national tragedy 2. Sarmiento derided Argentina’s gauchos as subhuman 1. Brazilian liberalism 1. Society was not well-suited to liberal thinking 1. Monarchy 2. Slavery 3. Mixed-race population 1. Triple Alliance War becomes catalyst for change 1. 1865–70 2. Argentina, Brazil, Uruguay defeated Paraguay 1. Under Francisco Solano López, Paraguay acquired powerful army 2. Believed Argentina, Brazil, and Uruguay threatened Paraguay’s outlet to the sea 3. Paraguay attacks 4. Paraguay’s adult male population was decimated 5. Brazil and Argentina gained land 1. 3. War created disillusionment in Brazil 1. Called up hundreds of thousands of volunteers to fight Paraguayan “tyranny” 2. War was in the service of liberalism and civilization 3. Caused many to question Brazilian civilization 1. (i) Brazil was one of two remaining slave societies in the Americas 2. (ii) Presence of free blacks and slaves in the army illuminated the contradiction 1. 4. Liberalism re-emerged 1. Elite Brazilians believed Brazil was unready for democracy 2. Emperor Pedro II argued that Brazil was backward 1. (i) Seemed to regret this 2. (ii) Took his role seriously 3. (iii) Philosophical Liberal, believed in Progress 1. 5. In 1860s, many Conservatives broke away to join the Liberals 2. Pedro II sided with a commander against liberal prime minister during Triple Alliance War, infuriating liberals 3. Liberal manifesto of 1869 1. Calls for democratic reform 2. Gradual emancipation of slaves 3. “Reform or revolution” 1. 8. A more radical group issues second manifesto 1. Demands limitations on emperor’s power 2. Immediate abolition of slavery 1. 9. Third manifesto — 1870 1. Calls for ouster of the emperor 2. End of slavery 3. Creation of Brazilian republic 1. 10. 1871, “free birth” law 1. Children would be born free 2. Signals an eventual end to slavery 1. 11. Conservative governments ruled, but progress caught on 1. Coffee growers begin to attract Italian immigrant workers 2. Export economy fueled growth of cities 3. Urban Brazilians were more likely to embrace progress 1. 12. Joaquim Nabuco becomes leading abolitionist 1. Popular celebrity featured on beer and cigar labels 2. Condemned slavery as obstacle to progress 3. After 1886, Brazil was only slave society 1. 13. Pedro’s daughter Isabel signs “Golden Law” of freedom — 1888 2. 14. Brazilian monarchy collapsed in 1889 I. Countercurrents: International Wars 1. Wars have been rare but catalyzing events in Latin America 1. Mexican-American War 2. Triple Alliance War 2. Chaco War (1932–35) 3. Paraguay fought Bolivia over the Chaco 4. The Chaco is a desolate region 5. War emerged after oil discovered 6. Paraguayan victory doubled national territory 7. Only major war fought between countries in 1900s 3. Bolivia 8. Defeat was third defeat in wars on the Pacific coast 9. War of the Peruvian-Bolivian Confederation (1836–39) 1. Resulted from unification of Peru and Bolivia 2. Chilean government attacked 3. Chilean victory ended confederation 1. War of the Pacific (1879–84) 1. Conflict over the Atacama Desert 2. Chile, Peru, and Bolivia all claimed a portion of the desolate coast 3. All three were selling claims to nitrate deposits 4. Conflict over mining led to Chilean attack 5. Peru and Bolivia lost territory 6. Chile’s economy relied on the nitrates for decades