Ovid, Metamorphoses
During the time of Augustus, Greek literature and myths were highly influential throughout the Roman world. In particular, Ovid, a Roman poet born in 43 BC, retells and adjusts much of Greek mythology in a humorous yet personal style to suit himself and his audiences (Plant 2012, p. 298).

A close comparison of Ovid and Hesiod calls for similarities and differences in their accounts of the human races. In Book I of the Metamorphoses, Ovid accounts four “Ages of Humankind”. He begins with the Golden Ages, where he describes to be a time of purity in humanity and the fertile land continues to prosper throughout “everlasting spring” (Ovid, Metamorphoses 1: 89-12). This period was known to be the climax of ‘peace and quiet’ on Earth as there were no warfare or negative qualities in human emotions. With the overruling of Saturn by Jupiter, his ascension was the beginning of The Silver Age as Ovid asserts. It was in this age that crops were planted and humans emerged from their cave homes to built homes of wood and bark (Ovid, Metamorphoses 1:121-124). Additionally, Ovid provides an aetiological explanation of the four seasons through the actions of Jupiter. The Bronze and Iron Age succeeded the Silver age, existing quite simultaneously. Cruelty in humanity influenced their submission to warfare, while by the time the Iron Age came, this worsened with ‘malicious evil’ roaming the land and the disappearance of ‘restraint, piety and truth’ (Ovid, Metamorphoses 1: 125-141).

Hesiod’s influence over Ovid is clear, with the exception of a fifth race in Hesiod’s account. Both authors account for the evolution of humanity and the transformation of the social and psychological structure with the use of metals as a metaphor (Kegan, 1982 pp.1). Ovid’s reflects spiritual and moral characteristics of humanity, as did Hesiod; common qualities present in both Rome and Greece (Nelson and Grene et al., 1998). As each stage of the world emerges, Ovid demonstrates change and like Hesiod, each age is far worse than the previous. On the other hand, while Hesiod focuses on the supernatural elements, such as the creation of the golden race by the gods (Hesiod, Work and Days 109- 110); Ovid focuses much on the natural transformation and progression of society from good to wickedness. Furthermore, Hesiod provides an in depth description of the beings in each stage, for instance, the god-like characteristics of the Golden Race and the stupidity of the Silver race (Hesiod, Work and Days 111-114; 132). In contrast, Ovid only provides a brief mention of such beings (Ovid, Metamorphoses 1: 149). Thus, while Ovid bases his writing on Hesiod’s recount, he remains closely rooted to the social and natural disorder of the world (such as Jupiter’s ruling conquest of Saturn ending in corruption of the word) with loose mentions of the some primary supernatural beings, consequently providing his audience with a more realistic perspective on the Ages of humankind (Ovid, Metamorphoses 1: 113-120).

Ovid’s interpretation of Apollo and Daphne’s myth is one of hidden connotations that voices Ovid’s opinion on the gods. In the myth, having offended Cupid, Apollo became a victim of his golden arrow, set to cause love (Ovid, Metamorphoses 1: 173); while Daphne, daughter of the river god Peneus, was shot with the blunt arrow that caused repent from love (Ovid, Metamorphoses 1: 172). As a result, Apollo’s love drove him to chase Daphne in hopes of persuading her to requite his love. Due to the effects of Cupid’s arrow, Daphne loathed affection as she sees it as a crime (Ovid, Metamorphoses 1: 485), thus, Apollo’s self-commendation only causes her to flee in fear (Williams 1999, pp. 45). Ovid does not exactly give positive ending to the myth as Daphne’s fear transforms her into a laurel tree (Ovid, Metamorphoses 1: 544-559), however, Apollo does end up with her one way or another.

There are two main approaches towards Daphne’s myth in interpreting the relationship between mortals and the Gods. On one hand, the anthropomorphism of Apollo is a personalizing a human experience of “blindly falling in love” and chasing a woman, allows the audience to level and experience the God’s emotions (Francese 2004). Therefore, in some sense, he creates a closer and realistic connection between humans and Gods. On the other hand, the condescending light Ovid places upon Apollo, questions the superiority of the gods. To succumb to such human emotions and experiences as Apollo had, results in the ignorance of wisdom and logic as shown in his own actions. Consequently, this also further supports Nagle (1984, 237) and Fulkerson’s (2006, pp. 13) notion that the God’s lack understanding of mortals, hence their love often ends in the destruction of humans, particularly women (For example, Daphne, Io and Danae).

Having born between 43 BC – AD 17, Ovid was born in a time of peace and prosperity in Rome (Plant 2012, pp. 298). His praise and often thought mockery of Augustus by critics poses an ironic tone to his work (Moulton 1973). One such example is Ovid’s story of Cipus, in which the character surrenders his destined kingship of Rome for democracy (Ovid, Metamorphoses 15: 552-621). A laurel wreath was used to disguise his ‘horns’ as to protect Rome from one-man rule. Ironically, Augustus is often depicted wearing a laurel wreath as a symbol of his power and respect (Zanker, 1988 pp.93-94). Thus, Ovid attempts to relate the kingship symbolism of the laurel wreath to Augustus being king of Rome, a notion, Augustus himself, took offense to. As a result, Rome, in Ovid’s perspective, was no longer true to its republican society.

Additionally, further mockery of Augustus is prominent in the previous myth of Apollo and Daphne. Instead of praise, Ovid mocks Apollo’s irrational behavior in which to question his wisdom and divinity. Augustus is known for his strong connection to Apollo, as to build the god’s temple on the Palatine Hill, Ovid’s myth simply mocks Augustus worship, thus is wisdom as a leader of Rome (Spawforth, 2012, pp. 159-161). However, one must take note of Ovid’s time, a period where the Roman government was nothing new, and the poet was still too young to witness Augustus’ greatest achievements. Therefore, as Galinsky (1975, pp. 253) asserts, Ovid was not particularly interested in Roman politics to establish an in-depth understanding, and hence his opinion or supposed mockery is his external view of Rome. Nevertheless, in lines 876-877 in Ovid’s Metamorphoses, he does reflect his hope in Rome’s greatness, however, he goes on to place himself “beyond the stars” as to surpass Julius Caesar and Ausgustus’ in fame (Ovid, Metamorphoses 1: 875-879)

References
Francese, C. 2004. Daphne, Honor, and Aetiological Action in Ovid's" Metamorphoses" in The Classical World, The Johns Hopkins University Press, pp. 153--157.

Galinsky, G. Karl. "Ovid, Vergil, and Augustus" in Ovid's Metamorphoses: an Introduction to the Basic Aspects, Galinsky, G. Karl , 1975 , 210-265

Hesiod, Work and days in Plant, I. 2012. Myth in the ancient world. Palgrave Macmillan, South Yarra pp. 173-175

Kegan, R. 1982. The evolving self. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.

Moulton, C. 1973. “Ovid as Anti-Augustan: Met 15. 843-79)’ in The Classical World, Vol. 67, No. 1, p. 6

Nagle, B.R. 1984. Amor, Ira, and Sexual Identity in Ovid's Metamorphoses, CA 3, 236-55

Nelson, S., Grene, D. and Hesiod. 1998. God and the land. New York, N.Y.: Oxford University Press.

Ovid, Metamorphoses in Plant, I. 2012. Myth in the ancient world. Palgrave Macmillan, South Yarra, pp. 298-311

Plant, I. 2012. Myth in the ancient world. Palgrave Macmillan, South Yarra, pp. 298

Spawforth, A. 2012. Greece and the Augustan cultural revolution. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Williams, F. 1999. Daphne Transformed: Parthenius, Ovid, and EM Forster in Hermathena, No. 166, Trinity College Dublin. Pp. 45

Zanker, P. 1988. The power of images in the Age of Augustus. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.