...Critically Evaluate Locke’s Argument against Innate Ideas In the enquiry, Locke talks of the notion of innate ideas as being ‘an established opinion amongst some men,’ this opinion can be seen as a direct conflict with Locke’s empiricism. Locke’s philosophical standpoint is that the mind gains ideas and concepts solely through experience; he argues that when we are born, we are born tabula rasa, a blank slate free from any knowledge or understanding and it is as we grow and experience the world around us that we form knowledge. The notion of innate ideas and principles then is clearly in complete contrast with Locke’s epistemology and as such Locke needs to show the arguments in favour of innate ideas to be flawed. I will show how Locke focuses his attack on one major assertion for the innate concept thesis, known as the great argument; how his two major problems with this argument are unfounded and how we can hold onto the concept of innate ideas in light of Locke’s criticisms. The great argument which Locke views as the main argument in favour of innate ideas goes as such: 1: If a principle is universally accepted then it is innate (as are the ideas which make it up) 1 2: There are some principles which are universally accepted 3: These principles (and the ideas which make them up) are innate This argument can be seen as fairly self-explanatory, but it does seem to rely completely on two major assumptions. Firstly, that all universally accepted principles must be innate, and...
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...Cosmological Argument Many philosophers have provided their arguments for the existence of God. Their arguments are a priori or a posteriori. A posteriori is based on experience of how the world is. In which the Cosmological view of William L. Rowe comes from. This paper will show how Rowe took the cosmological argument and its principle of sufficient reason and failed to make it an established argument of the existence of God. Cosmological Argument has been taking by many and divided into parts of their argument. Rowe was influenced by the Philosophers Saint Thomas Aquinas in the thirteenth century and Samuel Clarke in the eighteenth century. All men have similar view points, also are slightly different, and can be translated into one viewpoint of causal relationship. These viewpoints of their arguments are listed as follows: (1) The world is made up of either dependent beings, or independent beings. (2) Not every being can be a dependent being. (3) Therefore, there exists a self-existent being, and that being is God. In Rowe’s argument he reflects on the thought of principle of sufficient reason and it states that there must be an explanation of the existence of any and every being, and of any positive fact whatever. For example, this is the explanation for my existence and every feature of my life. Principle of sufficient reason give Anselm’s three cases: explained by another, explained by nothing, and explained by itself holds Anselm’s principles as false...
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...By hypothesis, the principle of self-love (“Always seek your own happiness”) is an objective principle. I will assume, as seems plausible, that the assumption behind the principle of self-love is that each person’s own happiness is something that each rational being (by hypothesis, given that the principle of self-love is an objective principle) has the same ground for seeking. The contradiction in willing the principle of self-love to be a universal law would be that in doing what he has objective grounds to do he thereby frustrates his own ends (he cannot achieve his ends, because in seeking them he would thereby frustrate them). By willing that each agent seek his own happiness, the egoist would thereby thwart his own end of seeking his...
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...Recognize principles that underlie legal reasoning and argument There are several principles that underlie legal reasoning and argument. The first two are probably the most common and easily digestible in supporting an argument. These two principles of moral reasoning are the consistent and inconsistencies of principle; principle consistency establishes framework for repetitive pattern. What is presented is identical in all instances and shows no differences in relevant way; therefore the outcome should always be the same (Cheesebro, 2010). Second principle occurs when it appears violations are occurring with the consistency principle, which then bears a burden of proof is the person claiming such act (Cheesebro, 2010). If at work all employees were afforded their birthday off with the exception of one, then this would be a violation of the consistency principle and the burden of proof is easily delivered. When it comes to arguments, jurist and attorneys uses deductive and inductive reasoning; if deductive, the reasoning can be sound, valid, or invalid; and if indicative, it can range from strong to weak (Cheesebro, 2010). Arguments in court are submitted with a precedent case as a foundation to present a winning argument; this is the appeal to precedent (Cheesebro, 2010). According to “Case Briefs” (2015) website sites the Rule of Law where as “Statutes that make criminal all abortions except when medically advised for the purpose of saving the life of the mother are...
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...The argument from religious experience is the argument from experiences of God to the existence of God. In its stronger form, this argument asserts that it is only possible to experience that which exists, and so that the ‘God’ therefore must be a God; case closed. In its weaker form (logically) the argument asserts only that religious experiences constitute evidence for God’s existence. Richard Swinburne has defended this form of argument with an appeal to the principle of credulity. The principle of credulity claims that rationally we should believe a person’s claim about what they have experienced. Generally, says Swinburne ‘it is reasonable to believe that the world is probably as we experience it to be. Unless we have an obvious objection to question a religious experience, therefore we should accept it as prima facie evidence from the existence of God at least. Although, the atheist Michael Martin criticised Swinburne’s use of the principle of credulity, If as Swinburne suggests that experiences are generally to be treated as veridical, an Atheist could logically argue that as he experiences the absence of God using the principle of credulity, that the world is then as this experience represents it as being Godless. Arguments therefore for the existence of God through credulity can be met with arguments from atheist experiences (fire with fire) which brings the two equal. Swinburne in defence argues that you can’t have a negative principle of credulity. Furthermore...
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...Sample Guidelines for Writing Ethical Arguments Your essay should be a position paper, not a report. The paper must make an ethical argument in defense of a thesis. It doesn’t matter what thesis you defend, but the argument must be clear and coherent. Depending on the topic, some outside research may be appropriate, but do not let that obscure the main purpose, which is to make an ethical argument. There are several possible ways to structure the paper, including one (or more) or the following: • Articulating and applying principles (such as love, respect for autonomy, respect for persons, the principle of utility, etc.) to the issue or to cases. • Investigating how one or more ethical sources work to support a particular view: for instance, how biblical principles or a religious tradition or a particular philosopher/philosophical school can be used to support your position on a focused issue. Such an approach should be critical, that is, with an awareness of where the philosophical or religious tradition is unclear or problematic and how others could use the tradition in a different manner. • Contrasting the arguments of two or more authors on an issue. • Developing and contrasting the pro and con arguments for a particular position. • Developing and answering a series of questions from general to particular, or particular to general. • Analyzing a case study. The reader of an ethical argument is looking for three main things in your essay:...
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...The Design Argument is also known as the Teleological Argument coming from the Greek word ‘telos’ meaning end/purpose. It is an “a posteriori” argument (from experience) based on empirical evidence (based on the 5 senses). It is synthetic (from observation) and is inductive (there are a number of possible conclusions although one may be more probable). The Design Argument states that the universe has order, purpose, regularity and suitability for human life (Sarah Tyler). Complexities of the universe demonstrate some form of design. The design requires a designer. Therefore, for many, the designer is God of the Classical Theism (Hereafter referred to as God). This argument was first introduced by Socrates, a Greek philosopher, showing that the argument is strong as it has survived the test of time as we are still discussing it in the 21st century so the argument has merit and displays longevity. “With such signs of forethought in the design of living creatures, how can there be doubt that they are the work of choice or design” cited by Socrates. There is an early belief that there is design in the world. In the 13th century, Thomas Aquinas furthered the design argument through his book, Summa Theologica. He proposed 5 ways to prove the existence of God; one of which was the Teleological argument. For Aquinas, these arguments point to a being “that we call God”. To prove the existence of god, he used the analogy of the archer, arrow and target to show that there must be...
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...The Cosmological Argument The Cosmological argument infers that the existence of the universe is due to the existence of God. Plato bought about one of the oldest arguments between 428-327 BCE. Plato believed that there is a self moving principle from which all change and motion originated. This principle is the core which is responsible for the world. Thomas Aquinas in the 13th century developed Plato’s views; however this development was with a theistic principle. The first three of the five ways produced was about the cosmological argument. Aquinas believed in the god of classical theism. The cosmological argument is a probability argument because it’s an a posteriori argument which takes its principles from an observation of the world. Its premises are drawn from experience and reach an inductive conclusion but are synthetic. Aquinas was a famous 13th century philosopher who came up with one of the most famous appliable cosmological arguments. These arguments were the first 3 of the 5 ways as mentioned above in the ‘Summa Theologica’. Aquinas’ first way referred to motion. Aquinas said “something’s are in motion. Now whatever is moved is moved by another…. Therefore it is necessary at a first mover…. Everyone understands to be God”. Aquinas further explained this as the reduction of something from potentiality to actuality. For example, fire which is actually hot, changes wood, which is potentially hot, to the state of actually being hot and vice versa and it must be something...
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...Examine how the Teleological Argument for the existence of God has developed. The teleological argument is the design argument for the existence of God. The name is derived from the Greek word ‘telos’ which means “end” or “purpose”. This theory speaks about things in the universe that appear to fulfil a purpose. Such design could not have occurred by chance, the only explanation has to do with references to an intelligent, personal being. This makes it an ‘a posteriori’ argument. The origin of the teleological argument dates back to the ancient Greek philosopher Plato (424-348 BCE) who believed in a pre-existent universe. He believed that the universe wasn’t created by an intelligent being which he referred to as the ‘demi-urge’. Instead his theory stated that the demi-urge did not create the universe ex nihilo, he simply developed a universe which he already existed in. For Plato, this was a rational explanation as to why there’s order in the world rather than chaos. Aristotle (384-322 BCE) who was a student of Plato also contributed to this theory. He considered that based on all that can be observed in the world and the stars above, the only explanation for all the complexity and beauty that the world contains was a divine intelligence. He believed that there was a first unmoved mover who is responsible for all order that exists. Such a God was also viewed as possessing intelligence, goodness, eternity yet remained incorporeal. St. Thomas Aquinas (13th century) adapted...
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...written with conviction but believes that logic must be exercised in the educational process (McInerny, 2005). In this particular work, McInerny attempts to make his readers understand logic by seeing their surroundings and environments in an objective and critical manner (McInerny, 2005). He is able to do so in lay-man’s terms that almost any reader would be able to comprehend. This piece was written as a handbook for presenting the very basic values of logic to people who have never had the chance to practice it before. Those that have been well versed in logic before may easily lose interest in a work this simplified. Summary Being Logical is organized into five parts: 1) Preparing the Mind for Logic; 2) The Basic Principles of Logic; 3) Argument: The Language of Logic; 4) The Sources of Illogical Thinking; and 5) The Principal Forms of Illogical Thinking (McInerny, 2005). Every part is broken down further and goes more in depth to its specific components. This helps to make the teaching of logic to not be too overwhelming. The first three serve as a foundation for logical thinking. The last two sections, The Sources of Illogical Thinking and The Principal Forms of Illogical Thinking put the foundations...
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...cosmological argument (25 marks) The cosmological argument is based on the principle of causation. In particular, it is put forward that any existent thing must have a cause or reason for its existence and that there cannot be more in the effect than there is in the cause. Hume challenges these assumptions in his Dialogues. There are three main critiques that Hume makes of the argument. Firstly, he has general concerns about the way it is structured, and believes that this structure is fallacious. Secondly, he has more specific concerns related to causation and finally he raises challenges to do with the concepts of contingency and necessity. Hume’s challenges to the structure of the cosmological argument directly question the validity of the assumption that existent things need causes or reasons for their existence. Hume says that just because each of the elements of the ‘chain’ has a cause, it doesn’t follow that the chain itself needs a cause. He gives the example of a collection of twenty particles – if an explanation is found for each particle individually he says it would be wrong to then seek an explanation for the whole collection, because you have already explained it by explaining each particle. This is called the fallacy of composition, and was later simply put by Russell that just because every man has a mother, it doesn’t mean that there is a mother of the human race. Hume also has some challenges to the notion of causation, which the cosmological argument relies heavily...
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...Sample Guidelines for Writing Ethical Arguments Your essay should be a position paper, not a report. The paper must make an ethical argument in defense of a thesis. It doesn’t matter what thesis you defend, but the argument must be clear and coherent. Depending on the topic, some outside research may be appropriate, but do not let that obscure the main purpose, which is to make an ethical argument. There are several possible ways to structure the paper, including one (or more) or the following: • Articulating and applying principles (such as love, respect for autonomy, respect for persons, the principle of utility, etc.) to the issue or to cases. • Investigating how one or more ethical sources work to support a particular view: for instance, how biblical principles or a religious tradition or a particular philosopher/philosophical school can be used to support your position on a focused issue. Such an approach should be critical, that is, with an awareness of where the philosophical or religious tradition is unclear or problematic and how others could use the tradition in a different manner. • Contrasting the arguments of two or more authors on an issue. • Developing and contrasting the pro and con arguments for a particular position. • Developing and answering a series of questions from general to particular, or particular to general. • Analyzing a case study. The reader of an ethical argument is looking for three main things in your essay: 1. a clear and interesting...
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...Locke claims that there is not satisfactory evidence to support this theory. In the first book of the Essay, Locke’s motive is to challenge the general assumption that the human mind innately possesses the basic truths thought necessary for the possibility of knowledge. Contrary to the widely held belief of innateness, Locke makes the argument that knowledge is derived from empirical experience. In An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, John Locke presents a systematic case against innate knowledge, and argues for the doctrine that sense...
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...Ethical Arguments of Physician Assisted Suicide With mounting increase of decriminalization, the ethics of physician assisted suicide (PAS) continues to be debated throughout the media, courtrooms and health care settings11. This debate is rooted in bioethics, as it examines values and moral issues in healthcare, health policy and medical research12. The arguments for and against PAS are founded in these values and morals of our healthcare system and health policy. Key arguments for supporters of PAS focus on two values: autonomy (self-determination) and individual well-being. That is, as individuals we have the right to make decisions not only on how we live, but how and when to end our life. Additionally, PAS supports the principle of beneficence,...
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...The Principle of the Indiscernibility of the Identicals is a property that is very important when we try to prove the validity of the arguments made by Descartes. It says that any two things that are identical have the exact same properties. Descartes uses this property to defend his argument of the mind and body. Descartes believes that since the mind and the body have different properties that they cannot be identical. He even goes as far as saying the mind is better off without the body because they body can somehow distort perceptions making thoughts unclear. Although Descartes' argument makes certain points, I find it very difficult to make any sense of it. I believe that the mind and the body are two separate things, but I disagree when...
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