...Chapter 4: Protein Function Chapter 7, Voet, Voet & Pratt * Link between protein structure and physiological function * Focus on myoglobin and hemoglobin * Both proteins reversibly bind to O2 * Extremely well-studied examples of structure/function relationships * Behavior is a model for many other proteins, especially metabolic enzymes Learning Objectives * Compare myoglobin and hemoglobin * Structures * Properties * O2 binding characteristics * Understand structural basis for hemoglobin’s O2 binding characteristics * Relate these characteristics to physiological role of hemoglobin * Understand biochemical basis of diseases/adaptations involving hemoglobin O2 Binding Proteins: Myoglobin (Mb) * Is a Monomeric protein * A single polypeptide * Has 153 residues, most are members of 8 α-helices (A-H) * Is a globular protein * Has 1 O2 binding site; reversibly binds O2 * O2: low solubility in water; diffusion through tissue is ineffective past a few mm Myoglobin Contains a Heme Prosthetic Group * Figure 7.2, 7.3 * Not responsible for knowing the structure of heme, just need to know that it contains iron which gives it is specific O2 binding properties * The color properties of this group changes due to the presence of oxygen * Red when there is oxygen is bound; blue when oxygen is not bound Myoglobin’s O2 Binding Curve is Hyperbolic * Consider the chemical equation...
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...reactions that burn nutrients like carbohydrates, fats and protein, these are perhaps the most widely known of the metabolic reactions. Your metabolism, however, actually includes every chemical reaction that takes place in your body, Drs. Mary Campbell and Shawn Farrell explain in their book "Biochemistry." Some of these reactions burn molecules to produce energy, while others use energy to make larger molecules that the cells use for a variety of purposes, both functional and structural. The cardiovascular system consists of the heart, blood vessels and blood. It's a relatively simple -- though critically important -- body system, in that it operates much like a pump and series of pipes through which water might move. The purpose of the system is to circulate oxygen to your body cells, but also to circulate nutrients. Your blood then returns the waste products -- including carbon dioxide -- of various metabolic reactions to the lungs and to excretory organs, Dr. Laurlaee Sherwood explains in her book "Human Physiology." Anatomy & Physiology - Body Systems Cardiovascular Digestive Endocrine Muscular Neurological Respiratory Skeletal The Cardiovascular System The branches of science that will help you understand the body parts and functions are anatomy and physiology. Anatomy deals with the study of the human body (the component parts, structure and position) and physiology the study of how the body functions. Body Systems The body comprises of a number of...
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...Three-Dimensional Structure of Proteins Student: ___________________________________________________________________________ 1. Exhibit 4A The following question(s) refer to this peptide: Cys-Ala-Gly-Arg-Gln-Met Refer to Exhibit 4A. Total hydrolysis of the peptide in HCl would yield these products: A. Ala, Arg, Cys, Gln, Gly, Met B. Ala, Arg, 2 Cys, Gln, Gly, H2S C. Ala, Arg, Cys, Glu, Gly, Met, NH3 D. Ala, Arg, 2 Cys, Glu, Gly, H2S, NH3 E. None of these answers is correct. 2. Exhibit 4A The following question(s) refer to this peptide: Cys-Ala-Gly-Arg-Gln-Met Refer to Exhibit 4A. The amino terminal amino acid is: A. Arg B. Cys C. Gln D. Met E. None of these. 3. Exhibit 4A The following question(s) refer to this peptide: Cys-Ala-Gly-Arg-Gln-Met Refer to Exhibit 4A. The carboxyl terminal end is: A. Arg B. Cys C. Gln D. Met E. None of these. 4. Exhibit 4A The following question(s) refer to this peptide: Cys-Ala-Gly-Arg-Gln-Met Refer to Exhibit 4A. The overall, net ionic charge on this peptide at pH = 7 would be: A. +2 B. +1 C. 0 D. -1 E. -2 5. The sequence of monomers in any polymer is this type of structure: A. primary structure B. secondary structure C. tertiary structure D. quaternary structure E. All of these 6. Hydrogen bonds are most important in this type of structure in proteins: A. primary structure B. secondary structure C. tertiary structure D. quaternary structure E. All of these 7. The overall folding of a single protein subunit is called: A. primary...
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...Describe how haemoglobin binds and releases oxygen, emphasising the role of cooperativity. In this essay I will be describing how haemoglobins ability to change its structure between tense and relaxed form gives it the ability to change its affinity for binding and releasing oxygen, and how this regulation, cooperativity, enables the protein to carry out its function of transporting oxygen from the lungs to respiring tissues efficiently. The structure of haemoglobin consists of 4 polypeptide chains, 2 alpha chains 141 amino acids in length and 2 beta chains 146 amino acids in length which, are both structurally similar (diatronic). Attached to each chain is a haem group which involves Fe2+ ion held in a heterocyclic ring known as porphyrin(bristol). Iron in haem is bound to 4 nitrogen atoms in the centre of the ring, leaving two binding sites, one site is occupied by a polar histidine which leaves the last site available for binding with oxygen (bristol). Haem is a prosthetic group as it is bound firmly within the active centre of the medium that it can leave the protein (book). Haemoglobin has the ability to change shape based on the environmental conditions and comes in two structures, relaxed and tense. The difference between these two structures is a 15 degree rotation between the alpha and beta dimers (davidson). This rotation changes the...
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...für sozial‐ökologische Forschung und Bildung gGmbH Nieschlagstrasse 26 30449 Hannover Tel. 0511‐92456‐46 Fax 0511‐92456‐48 Email mailbox@ecolog‐institut.de Hannover, April 2000 Contents 1 1 1.1 1.2 2 Introduction 1 3 New Technologies and Precautionary Health Protection Terms of Reference and Structure of the Review 5 2.1 2.2 3 Collating and Interpreting the Scientific Data (Methodology) 5 5 Primary Reciprocal Effects between High Frequency Electromagnetic Fields and Biological Systems (Biophysical and Biochemical Processes) 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 4 Thermal Effects 3.1.1 Effects of Homogenous Warming 3.1.2 Microthermal Effects Direct Field Effects 3.2.1 Effects from the Electrical Component of the Electromagnetic Field 3.2.2 Effects from the Magnetic Component of the Electromagnetic Field Quantum Effects Other Effects Particular Properties of Pulsed Electromagnetic Fields Biological Primary Effects of High Frequency Electromagnetic Fields Effects on Cellular Level 4.1 4.2 4.3 5 Criteria for the Selection of Papers Assessment Criteria Gene Toxicity Cellular Processes 4.2.1 Gene‐Transcription and Gene‐Translation 4.2.2...
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...move up vents, B.thermydron change the lipid composition of their cell membranes by increasing unsaturated fatty acid numbers. Additionally, body temperature decreases as pressure decreases. The opposite is true for when pressure increases. This homeoviscous adaptation maintains membrane viscosity, and therefore the function of the cell. Other adaptations include having muscles with high water content and a low erythrocyte count so that its body is mainly comprised of incompressible tissue. Moreover, juveniles, regardless of temperature, are more tolerant to pressure changes than adults - they can survive at atmospheric pressure for up to 6 months but the adults die after loss of motor control and suffering cardiac infarction. Nevertheless, acclimatisation to pressure allows flexibility in what area they live on vents. Bythograea thermydron are also adapted to various oxygen levels ranging from the oxygen-rich water at the vent base to the anoxic vent opening. The respiratory protein haemocyanin has a carrying capacity higher than other crustaceans and its composition varies according to the external environment. Its oxygen affinity displays a normal Bohr Effect – oxygen affinity increases as temperature increases up to 10 ºC and then decreases at higher temperatures. Ventilation rate and oxygen consumption changes when B. thermydron is exposed to high temperatures, pH and CO2, which illustrates the adaptive capability of these organisms. Also, mitochondrial respiration is more...
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...for cellular processes * Organic building blocks for macromolecules * Essential nutrients * Activities of animals depends on sources of chemical energy that is used to produce ATP * To meet the continuous requirement for ATP, animals ingest and digest nutrients * Carbohydrates, proteins, lipids for cellular respiration and energy storage Essential Nutrients * Essential nutrients are preassembled organic molecules and minerals * Obtained from an animal’s diet * Include essential fatty acids and amino acids, vitamins, minerals * Key function: serve as substrates, coenzymes, and cofactors in biosynthetic reactions * Essential Fatty Acids and Amino Acids * Animals convert fatty acids to a variety of cellular components * Membrane phospholipids, signaling molecules, storage fats * Essential fatty acids – animals can’t synthesize (but plants can) * Contain one or more double bonds * Example: linoleic acids, seeds, grains * Essential amino acids – obtained from food in prefabricated form * Animals use a set of 20 amino acids to synthesize proteins * Animals can produce about half (as long as diet includes sulfur & organic nitrogen) * Many animals...
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...close together) as separate objects / AW; ACCEPT ability to distinguish two objects see detail; IGNORE clarity / clear [2] 3. (i) transports water (up plant); ACCEPT alternative wording for transport e.g. movement DO NOT ACCEPT up and down DO NOT ACCEPT water and sugars transports, minerals / ions, (up plant); ACCEPT alternative wording for transport IGNORE ref nutrients / solutes DO NOT ACCEPT sugars support (plant / stem / shoot); ACCEPT keeps plant upright 1 max (ii) Functions: F1 (lignin), strengthens / thickens, the (xylem) wall; ACCEPT support only if in specific context of supporting the xylem wall F2 waterproofing (wall) / AW; ACCEPT waterproofs cell F3 (improving) adhesion of water (molecules); DO NOT ACCEPT adhesion and cohesion when used together F4 (spiral) pattern allows flexibility / stretching / movement; Flexibility / stretching must ref, pattern of lignin laid down i.e. spirals Explanation: E1 prevents collapse of xylem; E2 (water) under tension / at low pressure / negative pressure; DO NOT CREDIT loss of water...
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...Medical Council of India (MCI) recommended the following syllabus for National Eligibility-cum-Entrance Test for admission to MBBS/BDS courses across the country (NEET-UG) after review of various State syllabi as well as those prepared by CBSE, NCERT and COBSE. This is to establish a uniformity across the country keeping in view the relevance of different areas in Medical Education. PHYSICS S.No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. CLASS XI Physical world and measurement Kinematics Laws of Motion Work, Energy and Power Motion of System of Particles and Rigid Body Gravitation Properties of Bulk Matter Thermodynamics Behaviour of Perfect Gas and Kinetic Theory Oscillations and Waves CLASS XII Electrostatics Current Electricity Magnetic Effects of Current and Magnetism Electromagnetic Induction and Alternating Currents Electromagnetic Waves Optics Dual Nature of Matter and Radiation Atoms and Nuclei Electronic Devices CHEMISTRY S.No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. CLASS XI Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry Structure of Atom Classification of Elements and Periodicity in Properties Chemical Bonding and Molecular Structure States of Matter: Gases and Liquids Thermodynamics Equilibrium Redox Reactions Hydrogen s-Block Element (Alkali and Alkaline earth metals) Some p-Block Elements Organic Chemistry- Some Basic Principles and Techniques Hydrocarbons Environmental Chemistry CLASS XII Solid State Solutions Electrochemistry Chemical Kinetics Surface...
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...Cells, Exchange and Transport Cells (a) state the resolution and magnification that can be achieved by a light microscope, a transmission electron microscope and a scanning electron microscope; Resolution Magnification Light microscope 200nm x1,500 Transmission Electron Microscope 0.1nm x500,000 Scanning Electron Microscope 0.1nm X100,000 (b) explain the difference between magnification and resolution; Magnification is the degree to which the size of an image is larger than the image itself. Resolution is the degree to which it is possible to distinguish between two objects that are very close together. (c) explain the need for staining samples for use in light microscopy and electron microscopy; A lot of biological material inside a cell isn’t coloured, so it might be difficult to distinguish between different features. Coloured stains are used to stain specimens for use with the light microscope. Chemicals which bind to other chemicals on, or in, the specimen, which allows the specimen be to seen. Some chemicals bind to specific structures, such as Acetic orcein staining DNA red. Electron micrographs start off black and white, with the colour being added by a specialised computer program afterwards. (d) calculate the linear magnification of an image; Image size =Actual size x Magnification (e) describe and interpret drawings and photographs of eukaryotic cells as seen under an electron microscope and be able to recognise the following structures: ...
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... Spectroscopy is the study of the absorption and emission of light and other radiation by matter, as related to the dependence of these processes on the wavelength of the radiation. More recently, the definition has been expanded to include the study of the interactions between particles such as electrons, protons, and ions, as well as their interaction with other particles as a function of their collision energy. Spectroscopic analysis has been crucial in the development of the most fundamental theories in physics, including quantum mechanics, the special and general theories of relativity, and quantum electrodynamics. Spectroscopy, as applied to high-energy collisions, has been a key tool in developing scientific understanding not only of the electromagnetic force but also of the strong and weak nuclear forces. The basic principle shared by all spectroscopic techniques is to shine a beam of electromagnetic radiation onto a sample, and observe how it responds to such a stimulus. The response is usually recorded as a function of radiation wavelength. A plot of the response as a function of wavelength is referred to as a spectrum. Electromagnetic radiation consists of discrete packets of energy, which call photons. A photon consists of an oscillating electric field component, E, and an oscillating magnetic field component, M. The electric and magnetic fields are...
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...CARIBBEAN EXAMINATIONS COUNCIL Caribbean Advanced Proficiency Examination CAPE ® BIOLOGY SYLLABUS Effective for examinations from May/June 2008 CXC A10/U2/07 Published by the Caribbean Examinations Council All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form, or by any means electronic, photocopying, recording or otherwise without prior permission of the author or publisher. Correspondence related to the syllabus should be addressed to: The Pro-Registrar Caribbean Examinations Council Caenwood Centre 37 Arnold Road, Kingston 5, Jamaica, W.I. Telephone: (876) 630-5200 Facsimile Number: (876) 967-4972 E-mail address: cxcwzo@cxc.org Website: www.cxc.org Copyright © 2007, by Caribbean Examinations Council The Garrison, St Michael BB14038, Barbados CXC A10/U2/07 ii Contents RATIONALE.....................................................................................................................................................1 AIMS ..................................................................................................................................................................1 SKILLS AND ABILITIES TO BE ASSESSED ...............................................................................................2 PRE-REQUISITES OF THE SYLLABUS .......................................................................................................5 STRUCTURE...
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...How to go to your page This eBook set contains two volumes. The main content pages are contiguously numbered: use the Table of Contents to find those page numbers. The front matter pages and indices are labeled with the Volume number and page separated by a colon. For example, to go to page vi of Volume 1, type Vol1:vi in the “page #” box at the top of the screen and click “Go”. To go to page vi of Volume 2, type Vol2:vi in the "page #" box… and so forth. Encyclopedia of Human Body Systems This page intentionally left blank Encyclopedia of Human Body Systems VOLUME 1 Julie McDowell, Editor Copyright 2010 by ABC-CLIO, LLC All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, except for the inclusion of brief quotations in a review, without prior permission in writing from the publisher. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data McDowell, Julie. Encyclopedia of human body systems / Julie McDowell. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978–0–313–39175–0 (hard copy : alk. paper) 1. Human physiology—Encyclopedias. I. Title. QP11.M33 2011 612.003—dc22 2010021682 ISBN: 978–0–313–39175–0 EISBN: 978–0–313–39176–7 14 13 12 11 10 1 2 3 4 5 This book is also available on the World Wide Web as an eBook. Visit www.abc-clio.com for details. Greenwood An Imprint of ABC-CLIO, LLC ABC-CLIO, LLC...
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...Science Content Standards A Message from the State Board of Education and the State Superintendent of Public Instruction. In 1998 California adopted academically rigorous content standards in science. The adoption of standards in each core subject area marked a turning point in the education reform movement that began in 1983 with the report A Nation at Risk: The Imperative for Educational Reform, by the National Commission on Excellence in Education. Until then, the reform movement had focused on important but largely structural improvements, such as more instructional time, minimum course requirements for high school diplomas, and an emphasis on local planning efforts to promote efficiency and effectiveness. The desire to improve student achievement was there, but the focus on content-that is, a comprehensive, specific vision of what students actually needed to know and be able to do-was lacking. Standards are a bold initiative. Through content standards in the core subjects, California began to redefine the state’s role in public education. For the first time, the knowledge and skills that students needed to acquire were explicitly stated for the most part by grade level, although science standards at the high school level were organized by discipline. The standards are rigorous. Students who master this content are on a par with those in the best educational systems in other states and nations. The content is attainable by all students, given sufficient time, except for those...
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...7 Chapter 8 Chapter 9 Chapter 10 Chapter 11 Chapter 12 Chapter 13 Chapter 14 Chapter 15 Chapter 16 Chapter 17 Chapter 18 Chapter 19 Chapter 20 Chapter 21 Chapter 22 Chapter 23 Introduction to Biochemistry Water Amino Acids and the Primary Structures of Proteins Proteins: Three-Dimensional Structure and Function Properties of Enzymes Mechanisms of Enzymes Coenzymes and Vitamins Carbohydrates Lipids and Membranes Introduction to Metabolism Glycolysis Gluconeogenesis, The Pentose Phosphate Pathway, and Glycogen Metabolism The Citric Acid Cycle Electron Transport and Oxidative Phosphorylation Photosynthesis Lipid Metabolism Amino Acid Metabolism Nucleotide Metabolism Nucleic Acids DNA Replication, Repair, and Recombination Transcription and RNA Processing Protein Synthesis Recombinant DNA Technology 1 10 27 46 65 85 104 119 137 153 169 185 199 213 227 241 256 269 284 300 315 330 348 Chapter 1 Introduction to Biochemistry 1) Which elements account for more than 97% of the weight of most organisms? A) C, H, N, Mg, O, S B) C, H, N, O, P, S C) C, H, N D) Fe, C, H, O, P E) Ca2+ , K+ , Na+ , Mg 2+ , ClAnswer: B Page Ref: Section 2 2) Proteins in biological membranes may be A) porous. B) attached to the membrane surface. C) span the membrane. D) All of the above E) B and C only Answer: D Page Ref: Section 3 3) Which statement about cellulose is false? A) It is the most abundant polysaccharide in nature...
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