1. Portray Trisomy 21st, Turner’s, Klinefelters’s, Patau’s, Edward’s, Jacob’s, and XXX syndromes (Pp. 49, 57, class notes)

Trysomy 21st aka Down Syndrome. Genetic condition in the 21st pair of chromosomes in which the female has an extra X chromosome for a total of 47.

Turner's occurs in the 23rd pair of chromosomess in which the male is missing the Y chromosome. The male will now have 45 chromosomes instead of 46 and may not have fully developed sex organs .

Klinefelter's occurs in the 23rd pair also affects the male. This condition the male has an extra X chromosome taking from 46 to 47. Also a Trysomy. Develops female characteristcs. Can not be diagnosed until puberty. I I I
X X Y

XYY and XXX also know as Super Male or Jacobs syndrome

2. Describe how humans adapt under cold stress (Pp. 124-25).

Vaso-Constriction restricts blood flow retain heat. Shivering causes body temperature to increase. Wear more warm clothing or heat living space.
The body attempts to increase and conserve body heat by rerouting circulation and shivering
Vasoconstriction causes the blood to pool internally to conserve organ heat
Shivering causes the temperature to increase due to muscular activity
Individuals respond to cold stress by increasing muscular activity, wearing more clothes, or heating their living space

3. Explain what a population is, and describe the agents or factors those are responsible for generating and distribution variation (Pp. 25, 67-71, 78, 84-86, 97-98, 100, 393-94, and class notes).

Population
1. is a group of people that have lived together under the same circumstances for a considerable period of time.

2. members of a population seek mates within their own population

3. members of the same population share the same gene pool

4. members of one population differ from members of the other populations

Factors:

1. Genetic Drift - Movement by natural causes. Separated and creates new population at new place.

2. Bottleneck Effect - Destroying of animals that are able to reproduce which affects the population

3. Founders effect - migration from place to another place at a low level (few people) bringing habitssand customs both good and bad

4. Mutations - are created at random. causes of mutations are unknown. Sickle cell is a good example of mutation.

5. Gene Flow - (Migration) mass movement from one place to another as part of normal human curiosity.

6. Inter-Specific Gene Transfer - A gene transferred from one species to another. Example: Sickle Cell from mosquitoes to humans

7. Natural Selection - nature wants to keep population in balance. Example: sicke cell.

Heterozygous - Hba Hba
Hybrid (Trait) Hba Hbs
Homozygous - Hbs Hbs (disease)

8. Stabilizing Factors - Optimum level is the stage where you get maximum return. Example:

Goby fish

4. Define and derive the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium equation (Pp.97-98,101,110, Appendix B, Pp.427-28). describes and predicts genotype and allele frequencies in a non-evolving population using the formula p2+ q2 + 2pq = 1

Example: Sample population 100, A=0.60 and a=0.40

Homozygous Dominant = AA
Homozygous Recessive = aa
Heterozygous (Hybrid) = Aa

5. Describe different disorders, both dominant and recessive, in humans(Table 4.2 P. 72).

6. Explain Bergman’s rule, and Allen’s rule, citing suitable examples ( Pp. 124-25).
Bergmans rule: Bigger animals easier to adjust to cold climate, examples Roosevelt Elks and Polar Bears. Formula is:
Body Surface Area (B.SA) = Heat Loss
Size ---------------------------------------
Volume = Heat Regained

Allen's Rule: animals living in hot climate, appendages are longer, they are bigger and heavier. Example is the jackrabbit.

7. What are various methods to lose heat? Which one is the best and why?(Pp.124-26).
1. Radiation - (Electromagnetic Rays)
2. Convection - Air molecules
3. Conduction - By Touch
4. Evaporation - Sweating

The best method to lose heat is evaporation because it is directly affected by outside heat

8. How are genetic drift and founders’ effect similar and how are these different? Give appropriate examples. (P. 85-86).

Please Turn over

9. Calculate the allele frequency in a given population. (P.45 and class notes).
1) A study on blood types in a population found the following genotypic distribution among the people sampled: 1101 were MM, 1496 were MN and 503 were NN. Calculate the allele frequencies of M and N, the expected numbers of the three genotypic classes (assuming random mating). Using X2, determine whether or not this population is in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium.
GENOTYPE FREQUENCIES:
MM (p2) = 1101/3100 = 0.356
MN (2pq) = 1496/3100 = 0.482
NN (q2) = 503/3100 = 0.162

ALLELE FREQUENCIES:
Freq of M = p = p2 + 1/2 (2pq) = 0.356 + 1/2 (0.482) = 0.356 + 0.241 = 0.597
Freq of N = q = 1-p = 1 - 0.597 = 0.403.
EXPECTED GENOTYPE FREQUENCIES (assuming Hardy-Weinberg):
MM (p2) = (0.597)2 = 0.357
MN (2pq) = 2 (0.597)(0.403) = 0.481
NN (q2) = (0.403)2 = 0.162
EXPECTED NUMBER OF INDIVIDUALS of EACH GENOTYPE:
# MM = 0.357 X 3100 = 1107
# MN = 0.481 X 3100 = 1491
# NN = 0.162 X 3100 =502

2) A scientist has studied the amount of polymorphism in the alleles controlling the enzyme Lactate Dehydrogenase (LDH) in a species of minnow. From one population, 1000 individuals were sampled. The scientist found the following fequencies of genotypes: AA = .080, Aa = .280; aa = .640. From these data calculate the allele frequencies of the "A" and "a" alleles in this population. Use the appropriate statistical test to help you decide whether or not this population was in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium.
Genotype frequencies:
Freq AA = p2 = 0.08
Freq Aa = 2pq = 0.28
Freq aa =q2 = 0.64
Allele frequencies: p = Freq A = 0.08 + 1/2 (0.28) = 0.08 + 0.14 = 0.22 q = Freq a = 1 - 0.22 = 0.78

10. Describe chimpanzee and bonobo’s behavior. How are these comparable to humans?(Pp. 192-93).

The The Bonobo Bonobo

Bonobos are female dominant, with females forming tight bonds against males through same-sex socio-sexual contact that is thought to limit aggression. In the wild, they have not been seen to cooperatively hunt, use tools, or exhibit lethal aggression.

The Chimpanzee

Chimpanzees are male dominant, with intense aggression between different groups that can be lethal. Chimpanzees use tools to crack nuts, collects ants, and clip leaves, cooperatively hunt monkeys, and will even eat the infants of other chimpanzee groups.

Bonobo, Chimpanzee and human

Bonobos and Chimpanzees share close to 99% of their genome in common with humans, meaning that their genomes are more similar to that of humans than they are to that of gorillas. However, it may be that Bonobos, whose psychology is virtually unstudied relative to that of chimpanzees, are more similar to humans than are chimpanzees in how they solve various social problems. "k" selection = have less children take care of their own, kinship, sharing

11. Explain what you understand by NWM and OWM. How do they differ from each other? (Pp.154,156-59, 172,224-25).

NWM = Semi-Brachiation (in trees), are found in Central and South America and portions of Mexico. New World monkeys are small to mid-sized primates
OWM = Quadrupedal (terrestrial) are native to Africa and Asia today. Old World monkeys are medium to large in size

New World monkeys differ slightly from Old World monkeys in several aspects. The most prominent phenotypic distinction is the nose, which is the feature used most commonly to distinguish between the two groups. The noses of New World monkeys are flatter than the narrow noses of the Old World monkeys, and have side-facing nostrils. New World monkeys are the only monkeys with prehensile tails—in comparison with the shorter, non-grasping tails of the anthropoids of the Old World. New World monkeys (except for the howler monkeys of genus Alouatta) also typically lack the trichromatic vision of Old World monkeys

12. Describe different parts of human skeleton (Appendix A, p. 422).
Major parts of the human skeleton are:

1. Bones –It is a solid, rigid structure which support various organs of body.
2. Skull- It is a bony structure which encloses brain.
3. Vertebral column-It is also a bony structure which encloses your spinal cord. It is also known as backbone.
4- Ribs-It is a group of 12 pairs of curved bones which encloses lungs.
5-Joints-These are the places where two bones attach to each other. Example – the place where our upper part and lower part of leg connect is called a joint.
6. Cartilage –It is a semi-rigid and flexible tissue which encloses joints.

A few Examples:

True/False:

1. True. One of the best-documented cases of natural selection in humans is the relationship between malaria and hemoglobin S.

2. False. The most important stress at high altitude is sickle cell anemia. 4. True. Melanin is a good example of adaptation, which protects the body cells from UV radiation.

4. False. People that are lactose intolerance have No difficulty digesting milk sugar after the first few years of their life.

5. True. Most speciation is the result of geographic isolation. 6. True .Loss of body hair during human evolution may have resulted from thermoregulatory adaptation to sweating in a hot climate

False Lucy is same as Homo erectus

True OWM are closer to humans than NWM

False Pottasium-Aragon is a relative dating method

True Bonobos and Chimpanzees are the best models for ancestral human behavior

True Improper alignment of the upper and lower dentition is called malocclusion

False The United States will be relatively unaffected by the impact of global warming

True Most anthropologists do not consider the Tree Shrew as member of the Order of Primates any more

False There is apparent evidence that the Neanderthals did cohabitate with anatomically modern Homo sapiens

Multiple Choices:

1. The force of evolution which is significant when small human populations become isolated is: C- Genetic drift

A. Gene flow
B. Mutation
C. Genetic drift
D. Random mating
E. Founders’ effect
Continued:

2. What are the allelic frequencies of the following population? 0 AA, 100 Aa and 100 aa? C- 25% A and 75% a A. 50% A and 50% a
B. 0% A and 100% a
C. 25% A and 75% a
D. 33% A and 67% a
E. 100% A and 0% a

3. Which of the following can result in reproductive isolation? D- All the above

A. A population’s activity patterns
B. A species’ courtship behavior
C. An individual’s appearance
D. All the above
E. None of the above

4. According to Bergmann’s rule, a tall and slender body shape is adaptive in: B- Hot climates

A. Cold climates
B. Hot climates
C. High-altitude environments
D. Malarial environments
E. All of the above

5. The placenta functions to: D- All the above

A. Provide food to the fetus B. Provide oxygen to the fetus C. Filter out waste products
D. All the above
E. None of the above
7. A rise in the mosquito population among some African population had resulted from environmental changes brought about by:
A. Scavenging
B. Increased pollution
C. Increased population
D Urbanization
E. Horticulture
8. Symptoms of hypoxia include?

A. Headache
B. Loss of appetite
C. Nauseas
D. All of the above
E. None of the above
9. Which of the following is not a short-term response to cold?

A. Increased metabolic rate
B. Shivering
C. Vasodilation
D. Increased food consumption
E. Vasoconstriction
10. The "vitamin D hypothesis" held that dark skin would be at a disadvantage in northern climates, since the lack of vitamin D would lead to?

A. Malaria
B. Small Pox
C. Kwashiorkor
D. Malnutrition
E. Rickets

What hard evidence from Laetoli demonstrates that hominids were bipedal by 3.5 mya?

A. Complete fossilized foot skeleton
B. Fossilized foot imprinted in volcanic tuff
C. The forward position of the foramen magnum
D. A short and braod folssil hominid pelvis Fragment
E. None of these
Which dental trait is a characteristic of only apes and hominids?

A. Smaller number of teeth than NW apes
B. Large Molars
C. Long, pointy canine teeth
D. Y-5 Cusp pattern on some molars
E. All of the above

Albinos
A. Produce too much melanin
B. Have rickets
C. Lack melanin
D. Are not found in African populations
E. Have sickle cell

In most peoples brains, the language center
A. on the right hemisphere
B. In the occipital lobe
C. In the motor cortex
D. On left hemisphere
E. Medulla Oblongata

The main byproduct of plant photosynthesis is:
A. Carbon Dioxide
B. Oxygen
C. Starch
D. Water
E. Hydrogen

What are the relative and absolute methods of dating?
Relative = Method of dating artifacts or events in a sequence relative to one another
Examples: dinosaurs and humans

Absolute = Actual age of artifacts using radio-active carbon or Potassium-Argon dating methods
11.