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Technical Analysis Black Wednesday

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Submitted By timwaaijer
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17-05-2013 Internationale Monetaire Betrekkingen C. Troost

Groep 109A 2012/2013 Semester 2 Blok 2

Een technische analyse van Black Wednesday aan de hand van de Simplest Test
Sjeel Meijerink Tim Waaijer 10248552 6036759

INLEIDING
Op 16 september 1992 verliet Groot-Brittannië het Europese Exchange Rate Mechanism (ERM). Naar deze dag wordt sindsdien gerefereerd als “Black Wednesday”, de dag dat George Soros £1 miljard verdiende door te speculeren op een daling van de Britse pond (Leftly, 2012). Tot 1990 stemde de Bank of England (BoE) haar beleid af op dat van de Duitse Centrale Bank (Kenen, 1995, p. 6). Groot Brittannië maakte tot die tijd geen deel uit van het ERM. Door een hoge inflatie besloot Groot Brittannië in 1990 toch mee te doen met het ERM en kreeg een vaste wisselkoers ten opzichte van de Duitse Mark. De EEG stond echter een bandbreedte toe waarin een wisselkoers mag bewegen (Higgins, 1993, p. 29). Voor Groot Brittannië was dit tussen 6% boven de vastgestelde koers van 2,95 DM/£ en 6% er beneden, de wijde bandbreedte (Higgins, 1993, p.30). Anderen landen in het ERM moesten een strengere band van 2,25% aanhouden. Groot Brittannië, Italië en Frankrijk werden beschouwd als zwakkere economische landen met een hoge inflatie en daarom werd toegestaan dat zij een bandbreedte van 6% kregen in plaats van 2,25% (Higgins, 1993, p. 30). De afspraak is dat de overheid en de centrale bank de binnenlandse munt zullen kopen en verkopen om de wisselkoers binnen die band te houden (Pilbeam, 2006, p. 148). Voor de markt betekent dit dat wanneer een wisselkoers in de buurt komt van de uiteinden van de band, er waarschijnlijk een devaluatie of revaluatie gaat aankomen. Zo blijft de koers binnen de afgesproken bandbreedte (Grafiek 1). Svensson (1990, p. 3) heeft op basis van de afgesproken bandbreedte gemeten wat de markt verwachtte ten aanzien van de Zweedse target zone voor de Kroon door uitvoering van de Simplest Test. Deze test creëert een bandbreedte van verwachtingen op basis van de buitenlandse interbancaire rente en de maximaal en minimaal toegestane wisselkoers volgens de afspraken met de EEG. In deze paper wordt de vraag: “Verwacht de markt op korte (3 maanden) en middellange (1 jaar) termijn dat Groot Brittannië in het ERM blijft?” onderzocht op basis van een technische analyse in de vorm van de Simplest Test.

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Exchange rate band (DM/£) Echange rate DM/£ 3,200 3,100 3,000 2,900 2,800 2,700 2,600 2,500 2,400 2,300 Time Exchange rate DM/£ Upper Bound S Black Wednesday – September 16, 1992 Lower Bound S

Grafiek 1, Bron: Datastream

Analyse
Om de Simplest Test van Svensson te gebruiken moet er van uit worden gegaan dat UIP geldt (Svensson, 1990, p. 1). Dat betekent dat er perfecte kapitaalmobiliteit is en dat de verwachte verandering van de wisselkoers gelijk staat aan de binnenlandse rente minus de buitenlandse rente zonder risicopremie (Pilbeam, 2006, p. 150). De formule die Svensson gebruikt en die in deze paper ook toegepast zult worden:

! ∗ ������! = 1 + ������! ! ∗

!" ������!!! !

������!

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Het investeren van een unit van de binnenlandse munt betekent het investeren van 1/St units van de buitenlandse munt. Dit wordt geïnvesteerd in een buitenlandse obligatie van T maanden, wat resulteert in (1+it*T)T/12/St. Dit zijn (1+it*T)T/12 x (St+1/St) units van de binnenlandse munt, wat gelijk is aan (1+RtT)T/12. (RtT is hier het jaarlijkse effectieve binnenlandse rendement). De wisselkoers St wordt beperkt door bandbreedtes gevormd door een afgesproken maximale afwijking van een vooraf bepaalde koers. Dit wordt weergegeven als S- < St < S+. Door gebruik van S- en S+ in plaats van St+T wordt er een verwachting geschept wat betreft het rendement (Rt). (Svensson, 1990, p.3) Deze paper analyseert de verwachtingen van de markt op basis van de 3maandelijkse en de jaarlijkse interbancaire rente van de Bank of England en de Bundesbank. Hierdoor kunnen de korte termijn verwachtingen (Grafiek 2) en de middellange termijn verwachtingen (Grafiek 3) uitgerekend worden. Bij beide grafieken geeft de dikgedrukte lijn de interbancaire rente aan en de andere twee lijnen de grenzen van de band aangeven. Belangrijk voor het begrip is dat de grenzen in Grafiek 2 en Grafiek 3 niet de grenzen zijn zoals opgelegd door het EEG maar de gecalculeerde grenzen zijn van de marktverwachting

2

met betrekking tot de houdbaarheid van de koppeling aan de Duitse Mark. De band in Grafiek 1 is echter wel een door de EEG opgelegde voorwaarde om in het ERM te blijven. In Grafiek 2 is te zien dat de interbancaire rente binnen de band blijft en pas op 16 september 1992 er buiten treedt. De markt verwachtte op de korte termijn niet dat de Britse pond losgekoppeld zou worden van de Duitse Mark. De middellange termijn rente beweegt volatieler dan de korte termijn (Shiller , 1979, p. 1190) en dat laat Grafiek 3 zien. De interbancaire rente beweegt zich vaker buiten de grenzen en heeft begin april een piek. Deze piek is te verklaren aan het onverwachte verlies van de Labour, dat euro sceptischer was dan de conservatieven (Kavanagh, 1992). Hierdoor verwachtte de markt dat Groot Brittannië nog langer in de EMU bleef.
Percentage
% 16,000 14,000 12,000 10,000 8,000 6,000 4,000 Time Grafiek 2, Bron: Datastream

Rate of return band of UK (3 month period) Black Wednesday – September 16, 1992

Upper bound rate of return Interbanking 3 month rate UK Lower bound rate of return

Percentage % 13,000 12,000 11,000 10,000 9,000 8,000 7,000 6,000 5,000

Rate of return band of UK (1 year period) Black Wednesday – September 16, 1992 Upper bound rate of return Interbanking 1 year rate UK Lower bound rate of return

Time

Grafiek 3, Bron: Datastream

3

Vanaf begin augustus trad de jaarlijkse rente wederom buiten de grenzen. Dit maal lag de oorzaak in de grote speculatie op een koersdaling van de Britse pond (Higgins, 1993, p. 36). Er werden door beleggers grote hoeveelheden ponden verkocht. De Bank of England probeerde dit tegen te gaan door zo veel mogelijk ponden op te kopen maar uiteindelijk bleek dit niet houdbaar en werd op de avond van 16 september door de regering besloten dat Groot Brittannië uit het ERM zou stappen. Hierdoor werd de Britse pond weer zwevend en devalueerde meteen (Grafiek 1). Na de uittreding van Groot Brittannië uit het ERM had de opgelegde bandbreedte geen waarde en hoefde de politiek en de centrale bank de koers niet meer te beïnvloeden. De daaropvolgende devaluatie bewijst dit.

CONCLUSIE
Op 16 september 1992 gaf Groot Brittannië aan niet meer in het ERM te willen blijven en dus een zwevende wisselkoers te hanteren. De markt had dit op de korte termijn van 3 maanden niet verwacht, maar op de middellange termijn van 1 jaar wel. Dit is namelijk te zien aan de Simplest Test die Svensson ook gebruikte voor de Zweedse Kroon. Deze test creëert een bandbreedte op basis van de buitenlandse interbancaire rente en de maximaal en minimaal toegestane wisselkoers volgens de afspraken met de EEG. De binnenlandse interbancaire rente moet hier binnen liggen wil de markt verwachten dat een land zich aan de afspraken houdt. In het geval van Groot Brittannië verwachtte de markt op de middellange termijn dat de regering en de Bank of England dit beleid niet konden volhouden. George Soros voorspelde deze breuk met het ERM en verdiende hier £1 miljard aan. Er is een geavanceerdere variant van de Simplest Test die dieper ingaat op de marktverwachtingen en daar een probabilistische variabele gebruikt in plaats van huidige data. In verband met de complexiteit van deze formule wordt deze in deze paper niet gebruikt. Tevens gaat deze paper niet dieper in op de fundamentele factoren die ervoor zorgden dat Groot Brittannië niet binnen het ERM paste maar alleen op de uitleg van de technische analyse.

BIBLIOGRAFIE
Higgins, B. (1993). Was the ERM Crisis Inevitable. Federal Reserve Bank of Kansas City. Kansas: Federal Reserve Bank of Kansas City. Kavanagh, D. (1992, april 11). The Fourth Term: Blasts from Labour's past. Opgeroepen op mei 16, 2013, van Guardian: http://www.guardian.co.uk/politics/1992/apr/11/ past.electionspast Kenen, P. B. (1995). Economic and Monetary Union in Europe: Moving Beyond Maastricht. Cambridge: University of Cambridge. Leftly, M. (2012, september 16). The Six Men behind Black Wednesday. Opgeroepen op mei 14, 2013, van Independent: http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/thesix-men-behind-black-wednesday-8142455.html Pilbeam, K. (2006). International Finance (3 ed.). Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan. Shiller , R. J. (1979). The Volatility of Long-Term Interest Rates and Expectations Models of the Term Structure. Journal of Political Economy , 87 (6), 1190. Svensson, L. (1990). The Simplest Test of Target Zone Creditbility. National Bureau of Economic Research. Cambridge: NBER. Svensson, L. (1992). Why Exchange Rate Bands? Monetary Independance in Spite of Fixed Exchange Rates. Institute for International Economic Studies. Stockholm: Stockholm University.

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