HISTORY SUMMARY 1865-19901865-1900In the years following the Civil War the United States was transformed by the enormous growth of industry. Once, the United States was mainly a nation of small farms. By 1900, it was a nation of growing cities, of coal, steel, and of engines and fast communications. Though living standards generally rose, millions of industrial workers lived in crowded, unsanitary slums.In the north, industrial violence was common and occurred on numerous occasions. The most violent confrontation between labor and employers was probably the Great Railway Strike of 1877. The nation had been in the grip of a severe depression for four years. During that time, the railroads had decreased the wages of railway workers by 20 percent. Many trainmen complained that they could not support their families adequately, and there was little that the trainmen could do about the wage decreases. At that time, unions were weak and workers feared going on strike; there were too many unemployed men who might take their jobs. Some workers secretly formed a Trainmen's Union to oppose the railroads. In the last quarter of the century, the textile, metal, and machinery industries equaled the railroads in size. In 1870, the typical iron and steel firm employed fewer than 100 workers. Thirty years later, the force was four times as large. By 1900, more than 1,000 factories had work forces ranging from 500 to 1,000 workers. From 1860 to 1900 some 15 million immigrants from southern and eastern Europe came to the United States in search of a better life, and most of them settled in the north and northeast. With big cities and factories came big business and big government who profited greatly from the cheap work force of immigrants and washed out farmers. The working class comprised mostly of immigrants and farmers rebelled against the upper and middle class, and insisted on better living and working conditions.In the late nineteenth century, Americans became the backbone of the nation. The Indian problem that plagued America for 200 years was ending but not without bloodshed. Indians that were not killed were forced onto reservations. White farmers brought Indian land into cultivation, modernized their farms, and raised bumper crops. Many lived in poverty and debt while others fled to the cities, where they joined the industrial work force. Between 1865 and 1900, the nation's farms more than doubled in number as Americans eagerly migrated to land west of the Mississippi River. With the aid of modern machinery, farmers raised specialized crops and relied on the railroads to deliver their crop to market. Bankers and loan companies provided capital to expand farm operations, while middlemen stored and sometimes sold produce. Farmers increasingly desired and depended on improved machinery inventors and manufactures met the demand. In the 1970's large bonanza farms established the trend of large-scale agriculture. With mass farming came overproduction and falling prices. Railroads were becoming big business and attempts to regulate railroads failed. The Government was corrupt and big business did whatever they wanted with little resistance from politicians or elected officials. Cattle ranchers and shepherds had conflicts over land and barbed wire fences became popular. Gold was discovered in California, and strip mining for other precious metals environmentally damaged the land. Wild Bill's Wild West Show was popular, and the Grange society was formed.Of all the nation's agricultural regions, the South was the poorest. In 1880 the yearly income of southerners was half that of the national average. The New South attempted to industrialize with textiles, steel, cotton, and farm animals. The New South argued that southern backwardness did not stem from the war, but from basic conditions in southern life and a rural economy based on cotton. Realizing too late that power and wealth came not from cotton but from factories, machines, and cities, southerners did their best to survive. In an attempt to attract manufacturing, southern state governments offered tax exemptments and cheaper labor based on leasing state prisoners for labor. Texas and Florida awarded railroads land grants, and cities mounted large industrial exhibitions as incentives for industrial progress. In the 1880's, northerners increased their investment in the cotton industry and financed the southern railroad. Despite the south's attempts to compete with the north, they made slow progress. In general, all workers earned lower wages and worked longer hours in the south than elsewhere. Blacks who made up 6 percent of the work force were excluded from textile work and usually had the worst jobs and the lowest pay. Cotton was king and large plantations were subdivided into smaller farms. The National Grange (Farmers' Declaration of Independence) was formed and small farmers in both the west and the south organized for better living and working conditions. Some states outlawed railroad pools, rebates, passes, and other practices that seemed to represent discrimination and disorder. The Interstate Commerce Act was formed in 1887 and required railroad rates to be reasonable and just, and required schedules be made public. In 1890, congress decided to shelve a proposed act for protecting black civil rights and federal assistance for education. This left blacks vulnerable, and the republican party left blacks to fend for themselves as a minority in the south period. However in 1882 the courts voided the Ku Klux Klan Act of 1871, deciding that the civil rights protection applied to states rather than to individuals.1900-1945Though most Americans are aware of the Great Depression which may well be "the most serious problem facing our free enterprise economic system", few know of the many Americans who lost their homes, life savings, and jobs. In the 1920's, after World War I, danger signals were apparent that a great depression was coming. A major cause of the depression was that the pay of workers did not increase at all. Because of this, they couldn't afford manufactured goods. While the factories were still manufacturing goods, Americans weren't able to afford them and the factories made no money.A new plan was created called the installment plan. This plan was established because many Americans didn't have enough money to buy goods and services that were needed or wanted. The installment plan stated that people could buy products on credit and make monthly payments. The one major problem with this idea was that people soon found out that they couldn't afford to make the monthly payment.Farmers had no money and weren't capable of paying their mortgages. Americans traveled throughout the country looking for a place to work to support themselves and their family. The farmer's worst fears were realized when their corn and other crops began to die from the drought. The dust became so bad that they had to cover their mouths with handkerchiefs so they could breath. When the drought hit the Great Plains and the soil turned to dust, many farmers moved to California because they could no longer farm their land.In 1930, Virginia's belt of fertile land dried up. Ponds, streams, and springs all dried up and the great Mississippi River water level sank lower than ever recorded. Small farmers everywhere began to feel the drought. They now faced a major problem; how to feed their livestock. The silos were rapidly emptying and the barns in many cases were empty. The farmers were terrified that the government feed loans wouldn't be available to keep the livestock from dying. In many cases, the Red Cross was making allowances for feed to keep livestock alive.The Progressives and the AFL pressured state governments for laws to protect wage earners. Almost all states passed laws forbidding the employment of children under 14 years old. Thirty-seven states forbade children under 16 years old to work between 7p.m.and 6a.m. Nineteen states established the eight-hour day for children under 16 in factories and stores. The Progressives were also concerned with the hours worked by women in industry. Forty-one states wrote new or improved laws to protect women workers. Most limited the workday to nine hours, or the workweek to 54 hours. One of the greatest concerns of the Progressives was the problem of industrial accidents. They wanted workers to be paid for accidents regardless of cause. The cost of insurance to cover accidents, they said, should be paid by employers. By 1917, thirteen states had passed workers' compensation laws.Many states passed laws to improve safety regulations. The alliance of Progressives and the AFL also campaigned for federal laws to aid labor. In response, Congress passed laws to protect children, railroad workers, and seamen. It established a Department of Labor in the president's Cabinet. Most important of all, Congress passed the Clayton Act of 1914. Its purpose was to halt the use of antitrust laws and court injunctions against unions.During World War I, organized labor made great advances. The federal government created the War Labor Board to settle disputes by arbitration. Generally, the Board was favorable to wage increases, the eight-hour day, and collective bargaining. As the 1920's began, organized labor seemed stronger than ever. It was successful in getting Congress to pass laws that restricted immigration to the United States. Unions believed that a scarcity of labor would keep wages high, but events that took place in Europe were already threatening labor's gains. Immigrants entering the United States at this time were primarily from southern and eastern Europe.During the Progressive era, the public had sympathized with labor. Now the public became hostile to it. Employers encouraged anti-union movements, or created company unions that they sought to control. Courts found legal openings in the Clayton Act and issued rulings against union activity. The courts also found ways to use the Sherman Anti-trust Act against unions. Opposed by public opinion, business and the courts, union membership fell.For most Americans, the 1920's were prosperous years. But in October 1929, the New York stock market "crashed" and the value of stocks went way down. The crash, part of a worldwide economic decline, led to the worst economic depression in the nation's history. People lost their jobs, their farms, and their businesses. By 1932, thirteen million men and women were unemployed. This was one out of every four in the work force. Many more workers had only part-time jobs. In the cities, jobless men stood in long lines for a handout of bread and soup. Many of them lived in shanties near garbage dumps. Men and boys roamed the country, hoping to find work. Many lived in Hoover-Towns that popped up over night.In 1932, Franklin D. Roosevelt, a Democrat, promised Americans a "New Deal." He pledged to help the "forgotten man": the worker who had lost his job, or the farmer who had lost his land. Under Roosevelt, Congress passed laws to revive business and create jobs. To help labor, Congress passed the Wagner Act. It guaranteed workers the right to join unions and bargain collectively.During the 1930's, Congress enacted other reforms that benefited labor; The Social Security Act of 1935 created a system of government-sponsored unemployment insurance and old age pensions. The Fair Labor Standards Act regulated wages and hours. Minimum wages were established to help workers maintain a decent standard of living. Hours were shortened to give them more time for leisure. The law also forbade the labor of children under 16 in most occupations.In May 1933, the Agricultural Adjustment Act was passed. The aim of this act was to raise the farm prices by growing less. The farmers were paid not to use all the land to plant crops. The money came from tax on millers, meat packers, and other food industries. In June of that same year the Farm Credit Act was passed. This act helped farmers get low interest loans. With this act, farmers wouldn't lose their farms to the banks who held the mortgages. The farmers who had already lost their farms would also receive low interest loans.Unemployment in the United States remained high until the United States entered World War II in 1941. Then, defense industries boomed and millions of men entered the armed forces. By 1943, unemployment ended and industry was faced with a shortage of labor. During the Great Depression, women were urged not to take jobs. Now they were encouraged to go to work. Before long, one out of four workers in the defense industry was a woman. During World War II, labor cooperated with government and industry.When peace came, a wave of strikes for higher wages swept the nation. Employers became alarmed. They said that the Wagner Act had given labor too much power. A majority in the United States Congress agreed with them.The Great Depression was the end result of World War I. It affected the rich and poor alike, factory workers and farmers, and also bankers and stockbrokers. In short, it affected everyone; no one was left untouched. But of all the people hurt, farmers were the worst off. The Great Depression is known to be the worst economic disaster in U.S. history. For this reason, the Depression caused many people to change their ideas about the government and economy.1945-PRESENTDuring World War II, labor in the United States cooperated with government and industry. For the most part, business boomed and the standard of living for many citizens reached new heights. Upper and middle class Americans expected prosperity and growth to continue in the years ahead.After the war when peace came, a wave of strikes for higher wages swept the nation. Employers became alarmed and said that the Wagner Act had given labor too much power. A majority in the United States Congress agreed with them. In 1947, Congress passed the Taft-Hartley Act. It contained a number of provisions to limit organized labor. One of them outlawed the "closed shop" agreement that required employers to hire only union members. It also permitted the states to pass "right to work" laws. These laws forbade agreements that required workers to join a union after they were hired. Labor leaders bitterly denounced the Taft-Hartley Act. They said it was meant to destroy unions. Despite their fears, membership in unions continued to grow.In 1947,Truman's Civil Rights Committee recommended laws protecting the right of African Americans to vote and banned segregation on railroads and buses. It also called for a federal law punishing lynching. Truman issued executive orders ending segregation in the armed forces and prohibiting job discrimination in all government agencies.The Truman Doctrine which was unprecedented in history, more than $400 million dollars were spent in an uphill battle against a hostile Republican Congress through which to pass. From the Truman Doctrine came the Marshall Plan. This came about when Truman appointed General Marshall as Secretary of State. In that position, he observed "Europe's economic plight." Marshall proposed a plan that would offer aid to all nations "West of the Urals". This included the U.S.S.R. and her Eastern European satellite states. By March 1948, Congress had appropriated the first installment. Truman signed it into law on April 3, 1948. By its consummation in 1952, it would provide more than $13 billion in aid to war-ravaged Europe.This was a grand change in U.S. Foreign policy. We had gone from isolationists to internationalists. This Doctrine was in direct contrast to the Monroe Doctrine. The Monroe Doctrine served as the U.S. Foreign policy for well over 150 years. It essentially stated that the U.S. would not intervene in the World's affairs as long as no one interfered with ours. With the Truman Doctrine, we completely reversed that role that had been only briefly breached during the World Wars. Our new policy was one of Containment. Its purpose was to contain the spread of Communism to the United States.In 1964, congress passed a Civil Rights Act prohibiting racial discrimination in restaurants, theaters, hotels, hospitals, and public facilities of all sorts. This civil rights act also made it easier and safer for Southern Blacks to register and vote. Laws were passed to help poor people improve their ability to earn money, a program to give extra help to children at risk even before they were old enough to go to school was formed and a program to train school dropouts began.On June 24, 1950, Truman was told that North Korea had invaded South Korea. The U.N. Security Counsel took a unanimous vote to declare war on North Korea. Truman hastily sent 10,000 troops from Japan to combine with the weak South Korean Army. Even together, they were hardly a match for the 90,000 battle-hardened and strong North Koreans.Truman increased military spending to finance the war reinforcements. With newly received reinforcements, MacArthur brilliantly turned the tide of war. MacArthur moved speedily up the Korean Peninsula until Chinese intervention. They briefly provided a problem but they had no air force with which to support their own troops. Truman fired MacArthur on insubordination charges. The UN forces continued the war until a cease-fire was made in 1953. This reestablished the border at the 38th parallel. During this war, the U.S. lost about 60,000 troopsBy 1950, the United States had became directly involved in the Vietnam War. Ho Chi Minh had invaded South Vietnam. It began with the Gulf of Tonkin incident in which Vietnam Torpedo boats attacked U.S. destroyers. From there, more and more troops were poured into Vietnam. Presidents Dwight Eisenhower and John F. Kennedy increased the United States' political, economic, and military commitments steadily throughout the fifties and early sixties in the Indochina region.In the summer of 1964, some prominent senators had begun criticizing America's involvement in Vietnam, which led to the mass antiwar movements that were to appear in the summer of 1965. This antiwar movement had a great impact on policy and practically forced the US out of Vietnam.The U.S. began bombing raids in 1965. By the end of that year more than 200,000 troops were in Vietnam. In 1968, there were 525,000 troops in vietnam. Several peace initiatives were given by the U.S. but were refused by the Vietnamese. The Tet offensive renewed lagging conflict and eventually led to the end of all-out U.S. involvement in 1973. In 1970, the U.S. entered Cambodia due to a coup. However, in three months the U.S. troops were withdrawn. At the end of the withdrawal nearly 60,000 troops were killed and this time we had not even saved the country we were defending. The veterans received nearly no welcome, as the public was not interested in fighting a war too far away to matter.One great event that has caused the U.S. to escalate world aid and involvement was the collapse of the Soviet Union. No longer are we fighting to contain Communism, but instead to maintain Democracy everywhere. Still, today the Truman Doctrine prevails in determining our foreign policy. Most recently, we fought the stunning Gulf War. This was not a war of containment but it served a similar purpose. It sought to prevent an aggressor from overtaking a weaker neighbor. Luckily, we had minimal casualties. This war was one different from Korea and Vietnam. It had a significant impact on the United States. We fought for our oil supply. Thus, this war did have a significant purpose.On November 8, 1990, President Bush announced a military buildup to provide an offensive option, "Operation Desert Storm" to force Iraq out of Kuwait. The preparation of the operation took two and a half months and it involved a massive air and sealift.Finally, in January 1991, the U. S. Congress voted to support the Security Council resolution 660. Saddam Hussein temporarily maintained the occupation of Kuwait. President George Bush waited two days after the UN deadline for Iraq's withdrawal from Kuwait before ordering the Coalition to begin action against Iraq. On January 17, 1991, Baghdad was bombed fiercely by the coalition's fighter airplanes in the first night of the war. An interesting fact is that several weeks before this, US intelligence agents successfully inserted a computer virus into Iraq's military computers. It was designed to disable much of Baghdad's air-defense system.
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