A Study of Middle Grades Students’ Reading Interests, Habits, and Achievement

Nichole Lynnette Smith

A dissertation submitted to the faculty of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctorate of Education in the School of Education.

Chapel Hill 2009

Approved By: Dr. Barbara Day Dr. Frank Brown Dr. Sandra Hughes-Hassell Dr. Teresa Petty Dr. Xue Lan Rong

i

© 2009 Nichole Lynnette Smith ALL RIGHTS RESERVED ii

ABSTRACT Nichole Lynnette Smith: A Study of Middle Grades Students’ Reading Interests, Habits, and Achievement (Under the direction of Dr. Barbara Day, Advisor) Reading has become an area of concern among the American culture in the past decade. The amount of time the American public spends reading is declining quickly, and its most frequent drop has been among its youngest readers, elementary school students (National Endowment for the Arts, 2004). McKool’s (2007) research has found that there is a “strong relationship between the amount of out-of-school reading a student engages in and his or her success in school” (p. 111). It has also been found that students’ academic levels do not remain the same with no growth, but their academic levels actually drop if they do not read in their free time (Hughes- Hassell & Lutz, 2006). The current literature focuses on younger students, especially those in elementary school. The purpose of this study was to investigate potential differences of what influences middle grades students’ reading interests, leisure reading habits, and reading and academic achievement. This study found that gender, race or ethnicity, parents’ educational levels, academic success (grades), and citizenship did not influence middle school students reading interests. Gender, race or ethnicity, parents’ educational levels, academic success or grades, and citizenship did influence middle school students’ leisure reading habits. Gender, race or ethnicity, and parents’ educational levels did influence middle school students’ academic and reading success. Academic success or grades and

iii

citizenship did not have an influence on middle school students’ academic and reading success.

iv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS To all who have been involved and supportive of my educational endeavors, I thank you. It has been a long, hard road, which at many times an end was not in sight. To my husband, Walker, I want to thank you for putting up with me. I know at times I have been a little much to deal with, but now as we move towards the future all will pay off. To my daughter, Charlotte, thank you so much for the sweetest smile and unconditional love that you have provided in the final months of my journey. This is all for you! To my mother, thank you for a lifetime of encouragement and support that has lead to this moment and the many that are to come. To Allison, my sister-in-law, thank you so much for reading my work, no matter how painful it might have been. To my family, thank you for all of your love, prayers, and support. To Dr. Teresa Petty, thank you for your feedback and support. Your answers and continued support have been a tremendous help throughout this process. You are a great friend and mentor. To Dr. Barbara Day, I thank you for the encouragement and wealth of knowledge that you have given to me throughout my time at the University of North Carolina. To Dr. Sandra Hughes-Hassell, your support and encouragement have been provided at just the right time. I have learned so much from you, and I have enjoyed your being part of this process. To Dr. Frank Brown and Dr. Xue Lan Rong, thank you for being part of my educational process. Your knowledge has given me so much. To Amy Germuth of Compass Consulting, thank you for your assistance with my data analysis.

v

To Tammy Allen, you are a great friend, and I could not have made it through this process had you not lent an ear and shoulder anytime I needed it. To Sharon Sawyer, thank you for your support. You have helped me remain calm and feel loved throughout this process. To Tisha Duncan, the friendship I have gained throughout this experience with you is one that will last a lifetime. To Angie Kern, we have made it.

vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter I. Page FRAMING THE RESEARCH QUESTIONS……………………….……….1 a. Introduction and Background ……………………………….……………1 i. Sources of the Problem ...…………………………….…………...1 ii. Summary …………………………………………….……………3 b. Statement of Problem ………………………….………………………….3 i. Sample ………………………………………………….…………3 ii. Population ………………………………………………………...4 iii. How the Study Was Conducted …………………………….…….4 c. Purpose of the Study ……………………………………….……………..4 i. Research Questions ……………………………….………………5 ii. Null Hypotheses ………………………………….……………….5 d. Research Study …………………………………………….……………...5 e. Theoretical Model ……………………………………….………………..6 f. Significance of the Research …………………………………….………..7 g. Limitations ……………………………………………….……………….7 h. Definition of Terms ………………………………………………………8 i. Assumptions of the Research……………………………...……………..10 j. Summary ……………………………………………...…………………10 II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE ………………………………………...……..11 vii

a. Reading at Risk …………………………………………..……………..11 b. Introduction………………………………………………………………13 i. Reading………………………………………………...………...14 ii. What is Leisure Reading? ………………………………...……..15 c. Theoretical Framework …………………………………………...……..17 d. Leisure Reading Habits ……………………………………………...…..22 e. Reading Interests ……………………………………………………...…25 f. Independent Variables ………………………………………………..…29 i. Parents’ Educational Levels ………………………………...…...29 ii. Academic Success …………………………………………..…..30 iii. Student Demographics ……………………………………..……32 1. Gender ……………………………………………..……32 2. Race or ethnicity …………………………………..…….36 3. Citizenship ………………………………………..……..38 g. Summary ……………………………………………………….……….41 III. Methodology of the Study ………………………………………………..…43 a. Introduction …………………………………………………………..…43 b. Purpose of the Study ……………………………………………..……...43 i. Research Question ……………………………………..………..43 ii. Null Hypotheses ……………………………………..………….44 c. Population and Sample ………………………………………….……...44 i. Population ………………………………………………..……...44 ii. Sample ……………………………………………..…………....44

viii

d. Instrumentation ……………………………………………….………...45 e. Data Collection and Analysis……………………………………….…...46 i. Survey Data Collection and Analysis……………………………46 f. Setting ………………………………………………………….……..…48 g. Variables of the Study……………………………………………...……49 h. Limitations ………………………………………………………………49 i. Summary………………………………………………………………....50 IV. FINDINGS …………………………………………………………………..51 a. Introduction ……………………………………………………………...51 b. Demographic Information of the Sample ……………………………….53 c. Results ……………………………………………………………………56 i. Reading Interests…………………………………………………56 ii. Leisure Reading Habits…………………………………………..64 1. Gender ...…………………………………………………65 2. Race or Ethnicity ...………………………………………67 3. Parents’ Educational Levels ……………………………..70 4. Academic and Reading Success …………………………79 5. Citizenship ……………………………………..………..80 6. Other Findings ...……………………………………...…82 iii. Academic and Reading Success………………………………….86 1. Race or Ethnicity…………………………………………86 2. Parents’ Educational Levels ...……………………..…....87 3. Other Findings …………………………………...……...89

ix

iv. Conclusion……………………………………………………….90 V. CONCLUSIONS ……………………………………………………………91 a. Introduction ……………………………………………………………..91 b. Results ……………………………………...……………………………91 i. First Hypothesis: Reading Interests …………………………......91 1. Summary of Findings …………………………………....91 2. How Do the Findings Relate to the Literature …………..91 3. Implications for Practice ………………………………...93 ii. Second Hypothesis: Leisure Reading Habits ……………………93 1. Summary of Findings ……………………………………93 2. How Do the Findings Relate to the Literature …………..94 3. Implications for Practice ………………………………...98 iii. Third Hypothesis: Academic and Reading Success …………..100 1. Summary of Findings …………………………………100 2. How Do the Findings Relate to the Literature ………...100 3. Implications for Practice ………………………………101 c. Conclusion …………………………………………………………….102 i. Gender …………………………………………………..……..102 ii. Race or Ethnicity ………………………………………..……..102 iii. Parents’ Educational Levels ………………………….………..103 iv. Academic success and Grades ………………………….……...105 v. Citizenship …………………………………………….……….106 d. Limitations of the Study ……………………………………….………106

x

e. Significance of the Study ……………………………………………....107 f. Recommendations for Future Research …………………………..……108 g. Summary ………………………………………………………..……...109 VI. Appendices …………………………………………………………..……..110 a. Appendix A: Student Survey ………………………………….……….110 b. Appendix B: Assent Form ………………………………….………….118 c. Appendix C: Parental Permission Form ………………………….……121 d. Appendix D: Recruitment Script ………………………………….…...124 e. Appendix E: Spanish Survey …………………………………….…….126 f. Appendix F: Spanish Assent Form ……………………………….……135 g. Appendix G: Spanish Parental Permission Form ……………….……..138 VII. References ………………………………………………………..………...142

xi

LIST OF TABLES Table Page

4.1 Chapter 4 Organization………………………………………………………….51 4.2 Gender ………………………………………………………………………….54 4.3 Race or Ethnicity ……………………………………………………………….54 4.4 Citizenship ……………………………………………………………………...54 4.5 Grades …………………………………………………………………………..55 4.6 Mother’s Educational Level ……………………………………………………55 4.7 Father’s Educational Level ……………………………………………………..56 4.8 Time Spent Engaged in Activities in a Typical Day……………………………56 4.9 Gender and Reading Interests: T-test……………………………………………57 4.10 Race or Ethnicity and Reading Interests: F-test………………………………...57 4.11 Mother’s Educational Level and Reading Interests: F-test……………………..57 4.12 Father’s Educational Level and Reading Interests: F-test………………………58 4.13 Grades and Reading Interests: T-test……………………………………………58 4.14 Citizenship and Reading Interests: T-test……………………………………….58 4.15 Free Time Activities…………………………………………………………….59 4.16 Interests…………………………………………………………………………60 4.17 Why Do You Read? …………………………………………………………….61 4.18 Why Don’t You Read? ………………………………………………………….62 4.19 What Do You Read? …………………………………………………………….62 4.20 Characters/People Interests ……………………………………………………..64 4.21 Gender and Leisure Reading Habits: T-test……………………………………..66

xii

4.22 Race or Ethnicity and Leisure Reading Habits: F-test…………………………...69 4.23 Mother’s Educational Level and Leisure Reading Habits: F-test………….. ……73 4.24 Father’s Educational Level and Leisure Reading Habits: F-test………………...78 4.25 Grades and Leisure Reading Habits: T-test……………………………………...80 4.26 Citizenship and Leisure Reading Habits: T-test…………………………………82 4.27 Why Do You Like Reading? ……………………………………………………83 4.28 Sources of Reading Encouragement……………………………………………..84 4.29 Location of Reading Materials ……………………………………………….....84 4.30 Favorite Elementary Reading Material …………………………………………85 4.31 Favorite Middle Grades Reading Material ……………………………………...85 4.32 Race or Ethnicity and Academic and Reading Success: F-test………………….87 4.33 Mother’s Educational Level and Academic and Reading Success: F-test………88 4.34 Father’s Educational Level and Academic Success: F-test ……………………..88 4.35 Gender and Academic and Reading Success: T-test ……………………………89 4.36 Grades and Academic and Reading Success: T-test ……………………………89 4.37 Citizenship and Academic and Reading Success: T-test ………………………..89

xiii

CHAPTER 1: FRAMING THE RESEARCH QUESTIONS Introduction and Background Sources of the Problem Reading has become an area of concern among the American culture in the past decade. The amount of time that the American public spends reading is declining quickly, and its most frequent drop in time spent reading has been among its youngest readers. This is due, in part, to the surge of electronic media such as internet, video games, and portable digital devices (National Endowment for the Arts, 2004). Reading, as defined by the position statement of the National Council of Teachers of English Commission on Reading, is the complex, purposeful, social, and cognitive process in which readers simultaneously use their knowledge of the topic of the text, and their knowledge of their culture to construct meaning. Reading is not a technical skill acquired once and for all in the primary grades, but rather a developmental process (cited in Coutant & Perchemlides, 2005, p. 42). McKool’s (2007) research has found that there is a “strong relationship between the amount of out-of-school reading a student engages in and his or her success in school” (p. 111). It has been found that students’ academic levels do not remain the same with no growth, but their academic levels actually drop if they do not read in their free time (Hughes-Hassell & Lutz, 2006). By participating in leisure reading, one could increase his or her “vocabulary development, fluency, comprehension, and general 1

intellectual development” (McKool, 2007, p. 111). Leisure Reading also helps broaden the readers’ experiences and general knowledge (Abeyrantha & Zainab, 2004). Mellon, as cited by Hughes-Hassell & Lutz (2006), stated that “Leisure reading is defined as the reading teenagers do by choice as opposed to the reading teenagers are assigned by teachers” (p. 39). Leisure reading promotes readers’ attitudes and motivation to read. This type of reading can also promote a reader’s confidence because readers typically choose to read easier material for their leisure reading such as magazines and comics, instead of what is assigned to them at school. Leisure reading has shown to increase children’s academic success due to increased word knowledge (McKool, 2007; Nippold, Duthie, & Larsen, 2005). Reading impacts all areas of the curriculum; yet, according to Hughes-Hassell and Rodge (2007) 70% of children from low income homes comprehend at basic or below basic reading levels, and these children are below the appropriate reading level for their age. This, in part, could be due to the fact that low-income families have fewer reading materials at home, and the children then get most of their reading material at school from their teachers and school libraries which many times do not have the resources that the children are interested in reading in their leisure time (McKool, 2007). Also, children from low income homes typically go to underprivileged schools with inadequate funding, supplies, and resources (Bailey, 2006). In addition to socioeconomic status, children’s individual learning disabilities can also have an effect on their reading levels (Nippold et al., 2005). This would cause there to be a need to attend to these children in an effort to help them overcome their disabilities and lack of resources so they could be successful readers. However, leisure reading is not a habit that should be developed among those

2

only in lower socioeconomic brackets; a positive home environment from any income bracket is a large contributor to reading fluency and success (McKool, 2007). Summary It has been found that many adolescents can read, but the problem in their reading is that they do not comprehend the words (Coutant & Perchemlides, 2005; Darwin & Fleischman, 2005). Reading is a developmental process that must go beyond elementary school (Coutant & Perchemlides, 2005). Once some children get to middle and high school, they are more likely to hit the “literacy ceiling.” This means the children, especially those in the 70% mentioned earlier, do not read well; therefore, they do not comprehend well either. This leads to low achievement in reading, and the children begin to see themselves as non-readers (Hughes-Hassell & Rodge, 2007). Statement of the Problem The recent decline in reading has become a major issue of the American culture in the past decade as Americans are not reading out of necessity or as a leisure activity (National Endowment for the Arts, 2004). In addition to this decline, a connection has been found between children’s leisure reading habits and their academic achievement, causing even more concern (Hughes-Hassell & Rodge, 2007; McKool, 2007; Nippold et al., 2005). The purpose of this study was to investigate potential differences of what influences middle school students’ reading interests, leisure reading habits, and reading and academic achievement. Sample All students (N=479) in one middle school were invited to participate in the study, and to complete the survey. A target of 100 or more completed surveys was

3

desired. This would provide a 20% return rate or greater. One hundred and two surveys (n=102) were returned. Student participation was completely voluntary, and there were no penalties if they chose to stop participating at any point in the study. The students completed a survey designed to assess how they spend their leisure time. Population There were 479 (N=479) students attending the participating Piedmont North Carolina middle school. The racial breakdown of the school was 38.1% white, 19.5% black, 40.1% Hispanic, and 2.3% other. Eighty-six percent of the teachers at the school were fully licensed, 14% had advanced degrees, and none of the teachers were National Board Certified (North Carolina Department of Public Instruction, 2008). Manufacturing, the education and health care systems, and Wal-Mart were the area’s largest employers (Montgomery County Chamber of Commerce, 2009). How the Study was Conducted Once approval was gained to complete the research at the Piedmont North Carolina middle school, teachers were informed of the study in a faculty meeting. Teachers then took all forms and surveys and sought out participation in their homeroom classes. Once all data were collected, they were analyzed using SPSS, and several crucial findings were reported to researchers, educators, policy-makers, etc. Purpose of the Study The purpose of this research study was to investigate potential differences of what influences middle grades students’ reading interests, leisure reading habits, and reading and academic achievement. This study included the completion of a survey that was disbursed to 479 students. The survey was used to gain further knowledge about this

4

population based on the gender of the participants, their race or ethnicity, the educational levels of their parents, academic success (grades), and citizenship. Research Questions 1) What influences middle school students’ reading interests? How do they like to spend their free time? What are they passionate about? Why do they choose to read or not read? What are they reading? What types of characters do they like to read about? 2) What influences middle school students’ leisure reading habits? Why do middle school students read? Who encourages them to read? Where do they get their reading materials? What was the most popular reading material for these students in elementary and middle school? 3) What influences middle school students’ academic and reading success? Null Hypotheses 1) Gender, race or ethnicity, citizenship, grades, and parents’ educational levels do not influence middle school students’ reading interests. 2) Gender, race or ethnicity, citizenship, grades, and parents’ educational levels do not influence middle school students’ leisure reading habits. 3) Gender, race or ethnicity, citizenship, grades, and parents’ educational levels do not influence middle school students’ reading and academic success. Research Study One survey was used in this study; it was completed by the participating students of one rural middle school in Piedmont North Carolina. The survey examined the independent variables of gender, race/ethnicity, parents’ educational levels, students’

5

academic success, and students’ citizenship. The dependent variables of this study were: student reading interests, student leisure reading habits, and student reading and academic success. The instrument was quantitative in nature and adapted from a survey that was used in other leisure reading studies such as: SmartGirl.com (1999), Hughes-Hassell & Lutz (2006), Hughes-Hassell & Rodge (2007), and Nippold et al. (2005). Adaptations were made by adding questions to the original survey that related to the parents of the students. A pilot test at a middle school with similar demographics was used to test the reliability and validity of the survey instrument. One hundred students taught by one eighth grade teacher and their parents were asked to participate. Thirty-six percent of the surveys were returned. When reviewing the pilot test surveys, feedback was used to edit questions related to the students’ parents. Theoretical Model The theoretical framework for this research was an adaptation of the sociocultural approach to education and an adaptation of the family literacy theory. In this research study, the cultural, historical, and institutional reading practices of parents and their adolescent students were examined to investigate the ways in which the leisure reading habits of their middle school children as well as their reading histories affected their academic success. Through the sociocultural approach to education, family literacy was examined. This approach allowed the researcher to examine how “language and thought are situated within cultural, historical, and institutional settings” (Compton-Lilly, 2003, p. 16). This approach aided in determining how the social variants that people have, such as race, educational level, and gender, reward or punishes them (Compton-Lilly, 2003).

6

Significance of the Research This research was unique as it explored the reading histories and leisure reading habits of middle school children. This research provided the educational field with information to help them recommend the most effective at-home literacy activities for their students and reinforce these strategies with parents as well. This research was beneficial to those in education as well as society as an increase in positive leisure reading practices and habits will thus assist in the creation of a more educated and successful student both in and out of the classroom! Limitations There were several limitations in this study. This was a rural school district; findings may be different in a more populated and diverse community. The convenient sample taken from the school population did not completely match the population of the county. The racial breakdown of the school was 38.1% white, 19.5% black, 40.1% Hispanic, and 2.3% other (North Carolina Department of Public Instruction, 2008). The population of the county in which this school is located had a racial breakdown of 62.4% white, 19.8% black, 15.4% Hispanic, and 2.4% other (U.S. Census Bureau, 2009). Students self-reported academic success which may present accuracy issues (e.g., either under- or over-report their grades and other achievement). Since the researcher did not look at transcripts or other documents, the report depended upon the honesty and knowledge of the students. In addition to these limitations, most of the students that turned in the survey reported being students that made mostly A’s and B’s in their academic endeavors. This was a limitation because it was not the majority of students that attend the school, and it

7

may provide a skewed picture of the students’ academic success as compared to other variables. Students also provided information regarding their parents. This allowed students to report information out of speculation if they had limited knowledge of their parents’ backgrounds. This was a possibility for those students who were raised in a single parent home, as they may have limited knowledge of the other parent. Since students were asked to report whether they were born in the United States or a different country, some may not have answered truthfully if they feared repercussions. Definition of Terms For the purposes of this study, the following definitions were used: • Academic success was defined as the grades students receive most of the time and they had the choice of “mostly A’s and B’s”, “mostly B’s and C’s”, “mostly C’s and D’s”, and “mostly D’s and below”. • Adolescents and Teens for the purposes of this study were defined as middle school students between the ages of 11 and 14. • Citizenship was defined by being born in the United States and students had the choice of “yes” or “no”. • • Gender was defined as male or female. Leisure Reading was defined for the purposes of this study from Mellon, as cited by Hughes-Hassell & Lutz (2006): as “the reading teenagers do by choice as opposed to the reading teenagers are assigned by teachers” (39). • Non-readers for the purposes of this study were students that did not actively engage in leisure reading. • Parents’ educational levels were defined separately as students must state the

8

level of both their mother and father. The levels for each are “not a high school graduate”, “high school graduate”, “some college”, “college graduate and above”. • • Race or ethnicity was defined as “white”, “black”, “Latino”, or “other”. Readers for the purposes of this study were students that actively engaged in leisure reading. • Reading, was defined by the position statement of the National Council of Teachers of English Commission on Reading, is the “complex, purposeful, social, and cognitive process in which readers simultaneously use their knowledge of the topic of the text, and their knowledge of their culture to construct meaning (Coutant & Perchemlides, 2005, p. 42). • Students’ reading habits were defined by how often students read, enjoy reading, would read more if they had more time, were read to when they were young, read at the same time as their family now, buy books and magazines, are encouraged to read, visited the library with their parents when they were young and now, and their parents read. How many books and magazines they own and subscribe to, how often their parents buy them books, why they like to read, who encourages them to read, where they get their materials, what their favorite reading materials are, and what their parents read were also considered when examining their leisure reading habits (survey questions 5, 7, 15, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33). • Students’ reading interests were defined by how often students read about things they are passionate about, spend their free time, and what they are

9

interested in. Why and what they read or do not read were also considered when examining their reading interests (survey questions 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 10, 11). • Students’ reading success was defined by the students’ perception of how their parents’ feel they are as a reader, with the option to state yes, maybe, not sure, or no (survey question 25).

Assumptions of the Research The research population was predominately a group of non-readers as defined by the study. It was thought that these subjects would provide valid information because they would provide a true look at the occurrences such as home situations and habits could be positively correlated to the amount of academic success the students have. Summary As stated earlier, participation in leisure reading is rapidly declining among younger readers (National Endowment for the Arts, 2004). To compound the problem, the levels at which these younger readers comprehend what they read are also declining (Hughes-Hassell & Rodge, 2007). This is a pervasive problem because the amount of reading one does also relates significantly to one’s academic success (McKool, 2007). This study investigated potential differences of what influences middle grades students’ reading interests, leisure reading habits, and reading and academic achievement. It is hoped that, through this study, the findings will determine if there is a crucial connection between student leisure reading habits and their overall academic success.

10

CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE Reading at Risk Though originally published in the 1980s under the Reagan administration, the document A Nation at Risk remains relevant today. This document asserted that 40% of Americans at that time were functionally illiterate; this is a worrisome statistic for educators and business owners alike who were concerned about the capabilities of these illiterate populations to participate effectively in the workforce. In 1985, the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) stated, in accordance with A Nation at Risk, there was no significant increase in the growth of readers ages 13-17. NEAP again confirmed similar results in 2002, 2003, and 2007. In 2002, NEAP stated that “25% of eighth and twelfth grade students read below basic levels, and more than six million adolescents…will be similarly disadvantaged when they enter the U.S. labor market” (Jacobs, 2008, p. 8). In 2003, the NEAP stated that two of five fourth graders did not read at a basic level, and from these students, two of three black and Hispanic students could not read at a basic level (Temple & MaKinster, 2005). Not only does a lack of literacy affect one’s ability to obtain certain jobs, it has also been linked to poor physical and mental health and exclusions from communities while it has shown to increase the propensity for criminal activity (Papen, 2005). In the current adolescent literacy crisis “more than two-thirds of all eighth through twelfth graders are reading below the proficiency level,” and many of those are part of economic, ethnic, and gender groups that are falling behind; many are dropping out, upwards of 7000 adolescents a day 11

(Tatum, 2008, p. 160). There are a disproportionate amount of adolescents below reading level in ethnic and racial minority groups (Britto & Brooks-Gunn, 2001; Moje, Overby, Tysvaer, & Morris, 2008). Tatum (2008) agrees and has found a large proportion of black males lack basic literacy skills. It is also important to consider that students often lead a double life, especially those in minority groups, and their lives vary greatly in and out of school settings. In many of these groups, there are day-to-day encounters with “violence, classism, and poor schooling” that leave these minority adolescents feeling “dehumanized and devalued” (Tatum, 2008, p. 163). For these adolescents to be successful readers, the literature must connect to their lives and be meaningful to them (Tatum, 2008). Reading has become a major issue within the American culture in the past decade. The amount of time that the American public spends reading is rapidly declining, and its most frequent drop has been among its youngest readers. Between 1982 and 2002 there was an approximately ten percent drop in the reading rates of Americans, which resulted in a decline of about twenty million readers. This also correlates to the decline in the number of Americans reading books (National Endowment for the Arts, 2004). This decline of literary reading has also been linked to a decrease in the number of Americans that read as a leisure activity (National Endowment for the Arts, 2004). However, “learning to read is valued by many cultures, and the ability to read is regarded as the most fundamental goal of education” (Strommen & Mates, 2004, p. 188). Without question, it is a necessary part of everyday life because text is pervasive in our culture in everyday life (Ross, 2000). It is equally important to note that many Americans report

12

that they never read a book after they graduate from high school. The fact that Americans can read, but do not, is a crucial concern for the future (McKool, 2007). Introduction Education and literacy are important factors in a child’s life that may help them overcome the limitations of their current condition and social class. Literacy provides children an opportunity to empower themselves and this change their lives. Reading achievement, while a vital key to educational attainment, has shown marked improvement in children ages 13-17 as their parents educational levels increase (Phillips, Hayden, & Norris, 2006). However, adolescents are still struggling with reading. Twenty-five to 40% of children do not read well enough to comprehend their core subjects in school (Temple & MaKinster, 2005). Ash (2005) found that “although three-fourths of adolescents read at a basic level, only three percent of eighth graders and six percent of twelfth graders read at an advanced level, characterized by an extension of meaning and critical analysis” (p. 36). Similarly, Vacca (1998) found that fewer than five percent of students perform at an advanced level typified by examination, extension, and elaboration of text meaning. Darwin and Fleischman (2005) found the reading scores of twelfth grade students have remained flat for the past 20 years. This is not a new problem in the United States, and until now, little has been done to correct it. Adolescents lack the tools they need to be fluent readers; these tools would help them compare, synthesize, and analyze complex text (Ash, 2005). Pearson, Roehler, Dole, & Duffy (cited by Ash, 2005) found that when comparing expert and novice readers, expert readers engaged in certain telling behaviors,

13

such as “comparing prior knowledge with information in the text, asking questions, inferring information not provided in the text, and summarizing” (p. 36). Reading Reading, as defined by the position statement of the National Council of Teachers of English Commission on Reading, is the complex, purposeful, social, and cognitive process in which readers simultaneously use their knowledge of the topic of the text, and their knowledge of their culture to construct meaning. Reading is not a technical skill acquired once and for all in the primary grades, but rather a developmental process” (Coutant & Perchemlides, 2005, p. 42). It helps humans function independently, foster good relationships, develop self-esteem, and interact with society (Rizopoulos &Wolpert, 2004). “Reading skills are essential to the achievement of middle and high school students…however, many students still lack sufficient proficiency as readers” (Holloway, 1999, p. 80). A reader’s competence continues to grow through engagement with varied texts and wide reading for various purposes over a lifetime (Coutant & Perchemlides, 2005). Older readers can read the words, but they may need comprehension instruction so they understand what they are reading (Coutant & Perchemlides, 2005; Jacobs, 2008). To be a true reader, one must not only be able to read the words, but understand, comprehend and use the constructed knowledge to make connections to their own life, the world, and other texts.

14

What is Leisure Reading? Literacy, as described by Moje et al. (2008), is the print and symbolic notation one uses within the social and cultural systems of his or her community that helps them make sense of the world around them. Adolescents are children between the ages of 1020 (Moje et al., 2008). For the purposes of this study, adolescents are between the ages of 11-14 in grades six through eight at a rural, small town middle school in central North Carolina. Adolescent literacy typically begins in grade four when text moves from being strictly narrative to informative. This is a stage in which students are asked to comprehend, integrate multiple texts, relate their reading to personal experiences, evaluate history, and report their findings to an audience (Moje et al., 2008). When thinking of adolescent literacy, as well as emergent and adult literacy, it is important to consider the idea of functional and basic literacies. Functional literacy is centered around the community in which one uses the skills and knowledge of literacy to function in their educational and peer groups thus developing these groups further. Basic literacy is more closely related to the individual, as he or she uses the technical skills of decoding and writing in everyday life. Literacy in every form is an activity that allows one to achieve a purpose, whether reading a book, a website, or the expiration date on the milk carton (Papen, 2005). Mellon, as cited by Hughes-Hassell & Lutz (2006), stated that “leisure reading is defined as the reading teenagers do by choice as opposed to the reading teenagers are assigned by teachers” (p. 39). Leisure reading promotes readers’ attitudes and

motivation to read. This type of reading can also promote readers’ confidence because

15

they typically choose to read easier material for their leisure reading such as magazines and comics, rather than what is assigned to them in school. By choosing their own titles and genres for leisure reading, an adolescent can foster a more positive attitude toward school as well as increased academic success due to the increase in word knowledge attained from their leisure reading (McKool, 2007; Nippold et al., 2005). When considering the definition of leisure reading, one should also determine whether the adolescents are readers or non-readers. Readers would be defined as those who read text heavily for pleasure. In most cases, readers interweave text into their everyday lives. They choose books for pleasure, but it happens that what they read impacts their daily lives, and they use their life experiences to make sense of what they read. Non-readers would then be defined as those who only read when it is required in order to locate information, and this reading is often classified as hard work (Ross, 2000). Adolescents that consider themselves to be non-readers typically have not witnessed their family members reading regularly. Also, non-readers are typically told by their parents that they should read to get smarter, not to read for fun (Strommen & Mates, 2004). This literature review will be used to focus on the impact of children’s leisure reading habits and histories as they affect their academic achievement; however, this prior research focused primarily on younger students, especially those in elementary school, while this current study examined the reading histories, habits, and academic success of middle school students. This literature review will discuss children as well as adolescents, but the focus of the current research will be on adolescents in middle school. This literature review is organized into five sections: 1) Leisure Reading Habits, 2)

16

Reading Interests, 3) Parents’ Educational Level, 4) Academic Success, and 5) Student Demographics, including gender, and race or ethnicity. Theoretical Framework The theoretical framework for this research will be an adaptation of the sociocultural approach to education and an adaptation of family literacy theory. In this research study, the cultural, historical, and institutional reading practices of parents and their adolescent students will be examined to investigate the ways in which reading habits of parents/guardians and their attitudes about reading affect their middle school children’s reading histories, reading habits, and ultimate academic success. Literacy is a fundamental tool for successful human interaction on a daily basis. All children are exposed to literacy practices in different ways, and before ever entering school, children are already accustomed to seeing environmental print everywhere. Children enter schools with prior experiences from their own activities, their family members, and their peers. These early experiences help these children develop attitudes and identities with regard to reading. Through the sociocultural approach to education, family literacy will be examined in this study. In this approach, I will examine how thought is “situated within cultural, historical, and institutional settings” (Compton-Lilly, 2003, p. 16). This approach will also aid in determining how the social variants of a population such as race, educational levels, and gender, either reward or punish these people (Compton-Lilly, 2003). It has been found that a strong foundation in early literacy skills provides a firm foundation for school success and reading success. Early literacy skills, sometimes called emergent literacy are

17

based on the notion that children acquire literacy skills not only as a result of direct instruction, but also as a product of a stimulating and responsive environment where children are exposed to print, observe the functionality and uses of print, and are motivated and encouraged to engage with print (Britto & Brooks-Gunn, 2001, p. 1). In many cases, students who lack these early literacy skills are unable to be attentive during reading lessons, and they are many times diagnosed with Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD). When children begin kindergarten, it has been found that children from high socioeconomic homes tend to be 60% higher in their literacy development than students from low socioeconomic homes. Race or ethnicity are closely correlated to this and 48% of the lowest of these scores come from children with only one parent in the home, while only ten percent of these single parent homes account for the highest scores. This could be due, in part, to the fact that many low-income children lack the experiences to create prior knowledge, and they lack print materials in the home. Families in these situations are also plagued with financial issues as they go through school, and many times they lack access to facilities such as the library for they may not have transportation, the resources to pay late fines or the basic ability navigate the stacks (Phillips et al., 2006; Storch & Whitehurst, 2001). In the 1980s, many family literacy programs were started; these programs help alleviate some of these deficits (Britto & Brooks-Gunn, 2001; Phillips et al., 2006). Family literacy is a program that works to “increase the literacy efforts or activities involving more than one generation” (Phillips et al., 2006). Tracy, as cited by Phillips et al. (2006), adds that this literacy must encompass the mainstream and home

18

cultures of these caregivers and children. There are three main components in most of these programs: literacy instruction for children, literacy instruction for parents, and instruction to help parents practice literacy with their children. These programs determined that language and literacy are affected by the home environment, and in order to be successful, parents must be part of the literacy development in the home in such a way that they can engage in literacy activities with their children in an articulate fashion, not just through gestures (Phillips et al., 2006). The term “family literacy” was coined in 1983 by Denny Taylor. In her research she looked to “develop systematic ways of looking at reading and writing as activities that have consequences in and are affected by family life” (DeBruin-Parecki & KrolSinclair, 2003, p. 1). Much of the research has found that the family literacy practices at home influence the child’s academic success in school, and programs such as Head Start and Even Start were developed based on family literacy concepts. Family literacy services are defined as services that are of sufficient intensity in terms of hours, and of sufficient duration, to make sustainable changes in a family, and that integrate all of the following four activities: (a) interactive literacy activities between parents and their children, (b) training for parents regarding how to be the primary teachers for their children and full partners in the education of their children, (c) parent literacy training that leads to economic selfsufficiency, and (d) an age-appropriate education to prepare children for success in school and life experiences (DeBruin-Parecki & Krol-Sinclair, 2003, p. 170). In addition, family literacy allows parents to assess their own literacy skill strengths, and help them reinforce these literacy skills, for themselves and their children; family literacy

19

also helps parents and children see that their personal histories come with memories of literacy (Caspe, 2003). Family literacy’s main attempt is to address the family as a whole instead of addressing individual children when providing literacy education (Caspe, 2003; DeBruinParecki & Krol-Sinclair, 2003). Family literacy programs look at the educational levels of parents as well as their home literacy practices. This is due, in part, to findings that support the idea that the educational levels of parents are linked to their children’s academic success. Findings show that parents with higher educational levels are more involved in the education of their children. Furthermore, the educational levels of parents have shown to positively correlate with the parents’ reading habits in a personal and parental sense (DeBruin-Parecki & Krol-Sinclair, 2003). Parents with lower educational levels, especially those with no high school diploma, are more likely to live in poverty, face higher unemployment rates, and receive fewer job opportunities. These parents are also found to be less likely to read to their children when they are young. The educational levels of parents are important to schools because lower income communities have lower reading scores on average than higher income communities (DeBruin-Parecki & Krol-Sinclair, 2003). On the other hand, those students whose parents are considered middle class tend to acquire school-based literacy skills through the experiences they engage in at home before and throughout their entire educational experience (Compton- Lilly, 2003). Programs that are based on the family literacy theory have two main educational goals: to help parents advance their own educational levels, and help parents understand what they need to do to help their children be successful readers and thus gain higher

20

educational levels. Most of these programs are completed when the children are in the early childhood and elementary years, while others focus solely on adult education programs. Family literacy is approached in early developmental stages of a child’s life because studies have found that early readers have parents who read to their children, spend time with them, answer their questions, and, as parents, read themselves. Three of these programs are Even Start, Project Flame, and KUC. Even Start provides adult education, parenting education, and early childhood education for its participants. Project FLAME (Family Literacy: Aprendiendo, Mehorando, Educando [Learning, Improving, Educating]) reaches children by educating the parents only in literacy skills for the parents. Keeping up with Children (KUC) teaches the parents as well, but educates them on the literacy practices that occur in schools (DeBruin-Parecki & Krol-Sinclair, 2003). Most parents want their children to be successful, but many are uncomfortable in that educational role themselves. Family literacy recognizes the parents as the child’s first teacher, and stresses that parents must know how important this is. Those who believe in family literacy feel that the parents should have tools to meet or exceed their children’s literacy skills. The everyday interactions between the child and parent, as well as the environment, should build upon the child’s literacy skills. Under this theory, parents should pay attention to their children by communicating with them and reading to them (DeBruin-Parecki & Krol-Sinclair, 2003). Currently, family literacy programs only focus on the needs of children between the ages of birth and nine years. Research has shown that in this age group, 70% of students that are listed as struggling said they were not read to as a child, whereas 96% of accelerated readers stated they were read to by a parent or guardian (DeBruin-Parecki &

21

Krol-Sinclair, 2003). In this age group, children gain literacy skills through direct instruction or stimulation in the home environment. Children at this age gain phonemic awareness, concepts of books and print, reading styles, and literacy as a social practice; exposure to these concepts in the home enhances the children’s schooling and sets them on a path to become successful readers (Caspe, 2003). Leisure Reading Habits A study by Moje et al. (2008), found that adolescents read three to four times a week outside of school, yet this reading is often overlooked because they are not reading novels, short stories, and poetry, but rather websites, music lyrics, emails, letters, and magazines. Many even stated in this study that they would read more if they had more time. This reading, although not typically defined as such, promotes academic success by providing more reading practice for the students, which leads to increased vocabulary, understanding, and motivation to read more. Reading outside of school also helps to foster relationships, expression, and support in the students that engage in reading activities outside the traditional classroom setting. Students reported that the majority of their leisure reading material was provided by their peers and parents. Other materials were provided by affinity groups or groups with similar interests. It is also interesting to note that popular culture provided reading material that was deemed interesting by the adolescents, and they could locate thematic content in relation to popular culture, thus allowing them to continue reading. Much of the reading material listed by the adolescents related to their worldview. Websites were also discussed as a tool that enabled these students to connect to their identity and heritage, while also maintaining their first language. It is important to note that much of the reading allowed students to

22

make good decisions because they looked for material about people with whom they shared common interests or identities and so felt empowered to live vicariously through the mistakes of one teen while making better decisions themselves. Although much of the text that was cited in this study was non-traditional, it provided the students with access to networks and relationships while also allowing these adolescents to obtain facts. Some stated that they used tools such as the internet to read about colleges, jobs, and social issues like immigration (Moje et al., 2008). When asked why they read, students in Camp’s (2007) study stated motivations for fun, to learn something new, and because they had to. Hughes-Hassell and Rodge (2007) agreed with Camp and added that adolescents also read to relax, escape, and relieve boredom. Camp (2007) added that many students reported that they read daily at home; while high school students in eleventh grade were the only ones to have a nonpositive response with their frequency of reading, they did tend to have a neutral feeling about their reading stating that it was typically done for school purposes. These adolescents stated that their strengths in reading were comprehension, speed, and pronunciation of words (Camp, 2007). Parents and teachers were the main sources of reading education for the students, regardless of whether they felt they were motivated and not motivated to read. Reading as a leisure activity occurs most often when children are encouraged by their parents, read to by them, and when reading is modeled by the parents, recommended by parents, and discussed by parents. It is not enough to just read to children as they are growing up, but parents must also interact with the text and with their children (Abeyrantha & Zainab, 2004; Bailey, 2006; McKool, 2007; Strommen & Mates, 2004).

23

The child makes connections to the text because the parent is constantly communicating with the child about what is being read (Bailey, 2006). If parents place value on leisure reading, their children are more likely to do the same (Abeyrantha & Zainab, 2004; McKool, 2007). Parents, who read to and with their children and place great value on reading, have children who are more likely to read a variety of material. Also, the child will spend more time reading when there is more material in the home (Abeyrantha & Zainab, 2004). In addition, Bailey (2006) adds that, if parents value reading, then there will be better home/school relationships. Typically parents believe that reading is the most important skill that their child can have, but this feeling of importance decreases as the child grows into adolescence. It has also been found that when parents read, their children are more likely to be readers (Scholastic & Yankelovich, 2008). A child’s home environment and the adults situated in that environment, such as parents and community members that they have contact with, help develop the value of literacy in the early years (Strommen & Mates, 2004). Until 20 years ago, however, the teaching of reading at home was discouraged by teachers. Now this idea has shifted, and educators have seen that the literacy practices that take place in the home environment help encourage reading, as the children see it as a necessary part of their everyday lives. Parents are the child’s first opportunity to become socialized into literacy; this becomes especially important if the child is at risk for learning disabilities or other developmental problems. These first interactions prior to beginning school allow the child to gain messages from text as they are read to and discuss the text with their parent; it also allows them to pick up letter formations and words as they look though the books and learn to use text (Phillips et al., 2006). One-half

24

of these interactions with reading occur before the child’s first birthday. Parents, however, read less and less to their children, and between ages five and eight, only 38% of parents read to their children; between nine and eleven this number drops to 23%. This is also the age at which children read less for fun (Scholastic & Yankelovich, 2008). When children are young, before they ever enter school, the scaffolding of pre-reading skills must be built. This happens at home, in day cares, etc., and it allows children to become exposed to reading and literature-rich environments. At this time, children learn about letters, words, and books, and they pretend to read, as modeled by the adults in their lives. As parents and other adults begin to praise children for their reading skills, they develop motivation to continue reading as they begin to see its importance. It also allows them to build connections with those that read to or with them as well as connecting to other texts and the discussions that occur around them. For such prereading skills to be developed, it is necessary that children have access to reading materials, and adequate practice reading and decoding as they continue to grow and receive reading instruction (Jacobs, 2008). Reading Interests Currently, there is a decrease in the reading of books because of the surge of electronic media such as internet, video games, and portable digital devices (National Endowment for the Arts, 2004). Online reading is becoming a supplementary source for children and teens to use in addition to the text they read. This is important because more and more children after age eight go online to read, and, as they read, children ages 15-17 see their book reading tend to drop 17%, while their online reading grows to 58% of their cumulative reading time (Scholastic & Yankelovich, 2008).

25

Hughes-Hassell and Rodge (2007) found that most adolescents get the material they read in their leisure time from their homes, classes, and school and public libraries. In making choices about what they read, Hughes-Hassell and Lutz (2006) found that students enjoy reading periodicals and stories about “people like them;” it is important to foster this enjoyment because periodicals such as magazines are legitimate reading materials. They have many pictures, and this increases one’s ability to read the piece of literature quickly. These types of literature are also more readily available to all students. Periodicals are also important pieces of literature because they are typically written on a lower reading level. This helps to increase the fluency and comprehension levels of adolescents, and periodicals such as magazines are more socially acceptable among their peer group than traditional books (Hughes-Hassell & Lutz, 2006; Hughes-Hassell & Rodge, 2007). In addition to magazines, Camp (2007) also added that newspapers and websites have much to offer when adolescents choose to read them in their free time. The internet is a legitimate form of literature. Even people “who claim that they do not read every week might not be thinking of the reading they do through technology through e-mails, MySpace, blogs, online articles, and so forth” (Creel, 2007, p. 48). These readers may consider books boring, but can find something interesting on the internet and research it without this activity seeming like hard work (Ross, 2000). Through the internet, adolescents have the ability to read different websites that meet their individual differences; they can also read eBooks, and participate in chats and discussion boards, all of which require them to read (Hughes-Hassell &Rodge, 2007). Chen (2007) also added that reading letters and email from friends could also be considered leisure reading.

26

Adolescents must be able to use and understand multiple literacies of the 21st century. Many times today, children are proficient in reading outside of school, and they struggle in school with reading because they are not motivated or engaged. Today’s adolescents are capable of using the internet, videos and the computer to become literate in their own world, where reading takes on a new form, and its result is “an intricate intersection of learner knowledge and interest, textual factors, and social, cultural, and disciplinary contexts” (Moje et al., 2008, p. 113). More and more households have computers and other technologies, and as they become even more widespread, it is important that computer literacy become a social practice now, and integrated into the education of students where literacy is concerned (Papen, 2005). Jacobs (2008) agrees and states: Today, educators commonly agree that adolescents come to school with knowledge of multiple discourses or literacies, including those of ethnic, online, and popular culture communities, which they use for social and political purposes as they create meaning and participate in shaping their immediate environments (p. 20). A problem begins when children enter adolescence and a shift occurs in their leisure reading interests. Although many children are reading, many other factors come into play (Wicks, 1994). There are many competing options and factors that begin to take time away from time spent engaged in leisure reading, such as friends, sports, music, video games, computers, etc. (Abeyrantha & Zainab, 2004; Creel, 2007; Nippold et al., 2005; Strommen & Mates, 2004; Wicks, 1994). Hughes-Hassell and Rodge (2007) agree with this statement and add that television, the internet, clubbing and flirting also take

27

away the time that students would have used for leisure reading. Chen (2007) adds that many times boys do not read because it is considered a feminine hobby. Also, many of the young adult collections available to the students are strongly related to females (Wicks, 1994). Extra-curricular activities can also interfere with an adolescent’s time to participate in leisure reading, and in many instances, students go home to an empty house in which they must attend to chores or care for younger siblings instead of participating in leisure reading (McKool, 2007). As adolescents enter both middle and high school, they begin receiving more required reading which also takes away from the time they spend leisure reading (Chen, 2007; Hughes-Hassell & Lutz, 2006). This also causes their positive attitude towards reading that was developed during elementary school to decline (McKool, 2007). Students many times state that they do not participate in leisure reading because they have too much school work; others state that they get headaches when they read, or that they are just not good at it, and do not do any type of reading unless they have to (Hughes-Hassell & Lutz, 2006). Strommen and Mates (2004) also found that adolescents did not read because they found it tedious, slow, and too detailed. In addition to these excuses, Hughes-Hassell and Rodge (2006) added that a lack of good resources also inhibits their motivation to participate in leisure reading. In the 2008 Kids & Family Reading Report 55% of adolescents stated that there are not enough good materials for them to read, there was not enough time to read, and they could not find books they like (Scholastic & Yankelovich, 2008). Even though peers begin competing for one’s leisure time as students move into the adolescent stage of his or her development, parents still remain a great influence on

28

an adolescents’ reading habits, as well as their leisure reading interests (Abeyrantha & Zainab, 2004; Nippold et al., 2005). It was found that adolescents were also encouraged to read by their teachers, school librarians, and siblings (Abeyrantha & Zainab, 2004; Hughes-Hassell & Lutz, 2006; Hughes-Hassell & Rodge, 2007). McKool (2007) agrees and adds that peer recommendations also rank highly among adolescents’ literature choices. Independent Variables Parents’ Educational Levels Socioeconomic status can be determined by considering “family educational expectations, access to quality childcare, access to a computer, and home reading and television habits” and it is found to significantly relate “to children’s cognitive skills” (Phillips et al., 2006, p. 11). Low socioeconomic students are then further delayed as they enter low socioeconomic and low quality schools. One program that has been developed to alleviate this problem is the implementation of family literacy programs that help young children develop literacy skills prior to entering school, for they are at risk of being illiterate due to their socioeconomic status (Johnson, 1999; Phillips et al., 2006). Phillips et al. (2006) found that there is significantly less participation in reading when parents have less than a high school education, and students also have a less positive attitude about school reading. The typical American two-year-old knows approximately 320 words, and by age six, the same child will know approximately 10,000 words. These numbers are greatly dependent on the differences in socioeconomic status of these children’s parents (CrainThoreson, Dahlin, & Powell, 2001). Many children from low socioeconomic homes have

29

approximately half the vocabulary than that of their middle class counterparts, and this gap continues to expand as the children grow and enter higher grade levels (Temple & MaKinster, 2005). Being able to read fluently is a task that should be addressed among all students, especially low-income students. A positive home environment for children from any income bracket is a large contributor to reading fluency and success. This could also be an argument for reluctant readers as well. They gradually tend to lose academic ground from a lack of consistent reading (McKool, 2007). This is attributed to what Kim calls the “faucet theory.” In this theory Kim notes that at the beginning of the school year the “faucet” is turned on, and the students gain a multitude of new knowledge that is fostered by teachers in an educational environment. When the summer comes, the “faucet” is turned off and the students lose the influx of new knowledge, and the knowledge that they gained through the school years partially evaporates (Kim, 2004). Academic Success McKool’s (2007) research has found that there is a “strong relationship between the amount of out-of-school reading an adolescent engages in and his or her success in school” (p. 111). It has been found that adolescents’ academic levels do not remain consistent if they do not read outside of school, and in actuality their academic levels decrease (Hughes- Hassell & Lutz, 2006). By participating in leisure reading, one could increase his or her “vocabulary development, fluency, comprehension, and their general intellectual development” (McKool, 2007, p. 111). Abeyrantha and Zainab (2004) agree and add that when children read for pleasure, they “involuntarily and unconsciously improve their language skills” (p. 107). Leisure reading also helps broaden the readers’ experiences and general knowledge (Abeyrantha & Zainab, 2004). Leisure reading has

30

also been shown to correlate with a steady rise in test scores, another measurement of academic success (McKool, 2007; Nippold et al., 2005). Adolescents struggle with comprehension due to a lack of vocabulary and limited background knowledge (Darwin & Fleischman, 2005). Teachers feel that they must expose children to the experiences they have missed, and teachers encourage parents to be part of this. Children and teens also need to read and be able to connect it to real world experiences. This will improve their intrinsic motivation to read (Holloway, 1999). By having a strong vocabulary, children and adolescents alike are assisted in their reading skills because they have knowledge of words and their meaning, and they can use their vocabulary to help articulate their prior knowledge to others (Temple & MaKinster, 2005). Literature has an important role in the development of one’s vocabulary. One-half of a person’s vocabulary growth comes from reading, and the more one reads, the stronger his or her vocabulary becomes (Nippold et al., 2005; Strommen & Mates, 2004). A person can possibly be exposed to 15,000 to 30,000 new words a year, and they can retain approximately 2,000 to 3,000 words a year from the literature he or she reads (Nippold et al., 2005). Due to this increased vocabulary, children and adolescents also gain a better understanding of grammar and spelling, helping them to develop their writing skills (Strommen & Mates, 2004). In addition, reading can also increase one’s social development, such as their emotional psyche and academic learning (Camp, 2007; Strommen & Mates, 2004). It is not reading alone, however, that allows children to gain confidence in their vocabulary. It is partly due to their interactions with others. In their interactions with adults, however, children gain a stronger vocabulary, especially if it is

31

not random discussions, but contextualized by specific situations such as during and after reading a story together (Crain-Thoreson et al., 2001; Senechal & LeFevre, 2001; Storch & Whitehurst, 2001). This vocabulary development is also indicative of later school success as this enables the child to gain more and more knowledge of larger, more difficult vocabulary while also increasing their comprehension levels (Senechal & LeFevre, 2001; Storch & Whitehurst, 2001). In addition to socioeconomic status, children’s individual learning disabilities can also have an effect on their reading level (Nippold et al., 2005). “One of the key components for attaining reading success, for adolescents with and without disabilities, is the ability to read fluently” (Alber-Morgan, Ramp, Anderson, & Martin, 2007, p. 17). Bailey (2006) agrees and adds that emotional, social, physical, and behavioral issues also impact reading achievement and success. This would suggest a need to attend to these children in an effort to help them overcome their issues and emerge as successful readers. Once children get to middle and high school, they are more likely to hit the “literacy ceiling.” This means that the newly adolescents, especially those in the seventy percent mentioned earlier, do not read well; and thus do not comprehend well either. This leads to low achievement in reading as they begin to view themselves as non-readers (HughesHassel & Rodge, 2007). Student Demographics Gender Boys are more likely than girls to be non-readers (Nippold et al., 2005). It is also important to note that in their teens, low frequency readers would prefer to read online, as

32

would most boys, where girls tend to prefer books as a source for their reading (Scholastic & Yankelovich, 2008). Time spent reading was also very much diversified based on gender. Females are more likely to be avid readers than males (Chen, 2008). Males across the continents are continually not performing as well in reading as their female counterparts. Much of this is blamed on lack of literature that males are interested in, television, video games, and teaching methods (Haupt, 2003; Scieszka, 2003). However, this performance factor begins before they enter school. Males begin school with a lower reading level and their growth in reading occurs at a slower pace than in females (Morgan, Farkas, & Hibel, 2008). Typically, males read at a level that is a grade and a half lower than females of the same age (Scieszka, 2008). One problem that exists due to this lack of reading level at the beginning of one’s educational career is that many times no intervention is sought until a problem is seen later in one’s school career. Many teachers wait until they see a problem, sometimes this is as late as grades four or five (Haupt, 2008). One study agreed with these reports, but also found something interesting in addition to these findings. In Taiwan, it was found that females read more than males at most every age in school; however, females in college did not read more than males in this same group. Also, this study found that as men grew into older adults, they tended to read more that women (Chen, 2008). If children are in rich reading environment they will be more likely to be avid readers (Morgan et al., 2008). This includes a rich reading environment in the home; parents of any gender that provide a literacy-rich environment for their children will have children that spend more time reading versus those children that are not in a literacy-

33

friendly environment (Chen, 2008). Literacy-rich classrooms and school libraries are also important to the reading habits of both males and females. One issue that is encountered in these spaces does affect students based on gender. In classroom libraries, students many times are encouraged to read fiction books, but many students, especially males ask for more informational books. Males check out informational books at a rate two-thirds that of their female counterparts. Females are more apt to check out fiction. However, teachers and librarians many times unknowingly promote the reading of fiction over informational books, sending the message that reading is a more of a hobby for the female students (Doiron, 2003; Sullivan, 2004). This may be due to the lack of male teachers, especially at the elementary school level, when building a love of reading is so important (Scieszka, 2003). It is interesting to note that the reading selections of males are more evenly distributed with equal halves fiction and informational, whereas females are more likely to just choose fiction, suggesting a balance is also needed for females in encouraging them to read more informational books (Doiron, 2003). One issue with reading and adolescents, males in particular, is that they are not reading books, yet they begin to read more magazines and newspapers. This is an issue because schools do not consider the reading of these materials as actual reading (Haupt, 2003). Also, males spend more time reading science fiction, nonfiction texts, comic books, and humorous fiction, in comparison to females, and these genres are not always considered to be educational (Haupt, 2003). To increase the male students' interest in reading, lists need to be provided that help teachers and parents meet the needs of their male students. Typically reading lists are lists of fiction materials, meaning these lists reflect the reading interests of females

34

over males (Scieszka, 2003). One way to assist with this is to search for series of books that relate to male students. This allows for males to find a book he enjoys and the series will allow him to continue reading about this interest (Scieszka, 2003). It has been found in studies that male adolescents tend to gravitate toward reading materials that relates to them. For example, black boys read books by Sharon Flake, Sharon Draper, Walter Dean Myers, Paul Langdon, and others because they can see themselves, their fathers, and their communities in the pages (Flake, 2008). In Taiwan, it was also found the students who read short texts are primarily male, and females tended to read longer texts (Chen, 2008). Typically, children and adolescents want to read like their role models, and men do not read as many books as women (Sullivan, 2004). Male students need to see other boys, especially those older than them reading (Haupt, 2003). In general, men want to read information that will help them, such as newspapers, how-to manuals, and other nonfiction texts, but these reading materials do not provide exposure to the “languagerich” environment of novels that females read. Male children and adolescents want to read what is real to them, such as material related to sports and adventure, and they also want to find out how things work, which is why they tend to gravitate to more informational texts (Sullivan, 2004). Ultimately, males need access to materials, parental support, and encouragement in reading (Haupt, 2003; Scieszka, 2003). The adults involved in the lives of children and adolescents do not model reading behavior to males as much as they reinforce reading to young women (Scieszka, 2003).

35

Race or Ethnicity Twenty-one to 25% of American students grow up in poverty, and black and Hispanic students are almost three times more likely to be poor than white students (Temple & MaKinster, 2005). Reading impacts all areas of the curriculum; yet, according to Hughes-Hassell and Rodge (2007) 70% of children from low income homes comprehend at basic or below basic levels. This is also a problem because most parents in low income homes have a lower educational level themselves and, so they do not have the literacy skills to help their children (Phillips et al., 2006; Temple & MaKinster, 2005). This, in part, could be due to the fact that low-income families have fewer reading materials at home, and the children and adolescents then must get most of their reading material at school from their teachers and school libraries which many times do not have the resources that they are interested in reading in their leisure time (McKool, 2007). Also, children and adolescents from low income homes typically go to underprivileged schools with inadequate funding, supplies, and resources (Bailey, 2006; Temple & MaKinster, 2005). black churches and family literacy. A successful provider of family literacy programs in at-risk communities have been black churches. Members of the black community do not want to appear to be illiterate in their churches, and this has led members of these churches to seek literacy help to enhance their congregation’s literacy skills. In church, literacy becomes a source of motivation and pride for black people, and they are typically very comfortable and feel less stress in their church communities than in other social groups. The “black church is the strongest institution within the black community” (Johnson, 1999, p. 1). This community offers its people “social, political,

36

and educational leadership” opportunities, and these opportunities can help develop family literacy (Johnson, 1999, p. 1). Literacy programs in black churches began before the Civil War. Literacy was seen as a form of social mobility, and it increased one’s power and respect. Being literate allowed one to be emancipated and work towards an improved life. After the war, blacks wanted to learn what was being written about them by white men, and this strengthened their resolve to read. This was effective because the motivation provided a meaningful social context in which one could learn to read for a purpose. Through these church literacy programs, the percentage of literate blacks grew from five percent in 1860 to 70% in 1910. Through these literacy programs, blacks learned life and home skills, job skills, academics, and religious lessons, and many of these programs grew into real schools and colleges (Johnson, 1999). In these church family literacy programs, the curriculum was and still is centered on black history and being able to critically think and analyze text by looking at one’s own life experiences. This provides the participants with a personal stake in the education they are receiving. These programs use the language of the people and the themes of their lives to empower them (Johnson, 1999). The success of these programs, especially in urban areas, is due to the fact that the churches are in close proximity to libraries, colleges, and schools. Church members felt that just as much, if not more, education took place outside of a school as it did during school hours; it was very powerful if a church could use this out-of-school time to teach families to be literate. There are some concerns about family literacy programs in black churches. In the interviews conducted in Johnson’s book, some parishioners stated that

37

the people in these communities still need experiences that they could not be given in family literacy classes, such as travel experiences. It was also noted that those who are illiterate must ask for help before they can truly be helped (Johnson, 1999). Citizenship In addition to low socioeconomic and racial issues regarding literacy and education, the influx of immigrants to the United Sates over the past twenty years has also posed a problem with regard to literacy education (Rong, 2005). The immigrant population in the United States has grown 70% in the last ten years; there are approximately 4.5 million immigrant students in classrooms today learning English as a second language; 80% of these students are from Spanish speaking countries, and many are poor with a lack of parental education in addition to their language barriers (Temple & MaKinster, 2005). In many cases, these immigrant students are ignored educationally, but bring much knowledge and experience (Papen, 2005). Several issues have arisen as immigrants come to the United States requiring different educational services because of their different societal levels, living conditions, educational backgrounds, etc (Rong, 2005). This limits their ability to participate in literacy programs with the knowledge they have, and as their backgrounds are ignored, the immigrants are seen as inferior to other groups of citizens (Papen, 2005). Current education is under scrutiny because, until now, the European-based curriculum has sufficed, and has not been challenged (Rong, 2005). Even when programs such as Head Start and bilingual education have been put into place, they have typically failed because they have not created relationships between the teachers, students, and communities to initiate change (Cummins, 2001). However, this most recent wave of immigration has provided an even greater challenge for our

38

educational system. A system is being called for that does not oppress the cultural values of the immigrants, as it has been found that the loss of one’s heritage makes immigrants vulnerable to oppression, causing them to lose their ability to grow into productive American citizens (Papen, 2005; Rong, 2005; Rong & Preissle, 1998). Prior to the 1980s, the United Sates was viewed as a “Melting Pot” where assimilation was used to prepare immigrant students to be American, like the cultural majority, white Americans. Assimilation, by definition, “is the extent that immigrants adopt the language and customs of the host county” (Rong, & Preissle, 1998, p. 92). This was previously felt to be a good and helpful way to assist in the transition from one’s home country to America as it theoretically eliminated boundaries, therefore helping the immigrants learn to be American. It was thought that assimilation stabilized the immigrants’ lives and made their transition easier by causing them to be like everyone else (Rong, 2005; Rong & Preissle, 1998). Assimilation was popular in education as many Americans feared that the immigrant students would lower the quality of the schools if they brought in their unique cultures, so it was best to make them mimic other students as quickly as possible (Rong & Brown, 2001). However, assimilation and the subtractive theory of education caused immigrants to feel handicapped by their status as a foreigner, and they strove to become Americanized and shed the culture that made them foreign. Assimilation and the subtractive theory tried to over-correct the children’s nonAmerican tendencies, causing over-assimilation (Rong, 2005). One major problem when educating immigrants through assimilation is that the current influx of immigrants come from non-European countries, making the current educational system obsolete as its practices and norms become irrelevant for these

39

students. It is difficult to educate these students in their own native cultures, as these vary so greatly that it would not meet the needs of all of the immigrant students in the class. Also, due to the fact that these students have different backgrounds, educational levels, and legal statuses, it is very difficult to pinpoint what will work for their particular situation and prepare them to meet their potential upon completion of the public education that is guaranteed for all students (Rong & Preissle, 1998). The dropout rate is also high among some immigrant groups (Cummins, 2001; Rong & Preissle, 1998). This is not due to the students’ inability to complete an educational program, but it is the product of the schools not meeting these students’ needs. Many students dropout because they are not at an appropriate educational level when they begin school in America. Parents’ lack of education also leads to a higher dropout rate, and some children must leave school to work and care for the family due to the influence of their cultural norms. This leads to a higher illiteracy rate, and suggests that many of these children are illiterate in both their native language and in English. To help amend this, it is important to provide students with the skills they need to function in American culture, such as the ability to speak and read English (Rong & Preissle, 1998). A challenge to the assimilation theory has arisen to prevent the negative effects of over-assimilation allowing immigrants to keep their cultures alive in their attempts to be American; this is known as acculturation (Rong & Preissle, 1998). Acculturation is defined as the “sustained contact among two or more groups. It is the exchange and adaptation of practices, beliefs, knowledge, and skills among different groups – the result of the borrowing is a recombining of the old into something new” (Rong & Preissle, 1998, p. 81). Acculturation and the additive theory of education allow immigrants to

40

maintain a multicultural identity. This theory provides immigrants the ability to identify with their foreign culture along with the newly acquired American culture by learning English and maintaining their home languages and culture. This gives immigrants a sense of respect about American ways in addition to their own societal values and cultures (Rong, 2005; Rong & Brown. 2001). Although assimilation and acculturation are different, they do share the importance of being able to communicate effectively in the United States, as well as being knowledgeable of certain societal customs. It must be understood that acquiring the English language depends of the age of the immigrant, as well as his or her previous educational experiences. To amend this, teachers must make the students feel comfortable in their new environments by creating lessons to meet their needs; teachers must also include immigrant students as participants and members of the educational community by allowing them to share their own cultures and learn from the other students’ cultures. Acculturation as an educational tool has been found to be successful in the first and second generation immigrants, but is not as possible with the third generation immigrants, as they have been completely Americanized (Rong & Brown, 2001). Summary Among subgroups, women read more than men, the white population reads more than other ethnic groups, and the more educated read more than the less educated, but the reading rates among each of these categories have seen a substantial overall decline. With this decline in reading participation there is also a correlative decline in cultural and civic participation among Americans. There is also a decrease in the reading of books

41

because of the surge of electronic media such as internet, video games, and portable digital devices. This decline in literary reading has also correlated with a decrease in those that read as a leisure activity (National Endowment for the Arts, 2004). Chen (2007) agrees and adds that gender, parents’ educational levels, current academic achievement, and the adolescent’s individual interests were also factors that motivated students, or caused a lack of motivation. Reading is the strongest way for someone to come into contact with low frequency words, or words they do not see or hear every day, and so become better readers (Nippold et al., 2005). One might conclude that children must be able to read fluently to be considered as basic readers. Adolescents must read in their free time to become more fluent and read at a higher level and be able to comprehend at this level (Strommen & Mates, 2004). Literacy development is tied to the ability of the students combined with community norms, but this development should not stop after the early years (Strommen & Mates, 2004). Older readers must also be addressed. They, just like their younger counterparts, need help in reading from their homes, communities, and others that influence their lives (Jacobs, 2008). Parents should continue to provide resources as the child grows (Strommen & Mates, 2004). Parents are the most influential people in a child’s life. The more that parents are involved in their children’s' educational processes, the higher the children’s' chances to succeed academically and socially. Parents are their child’s first teacher; their involvement sets the foundation for the students’ success (Abeyrantha & Zainab, 2004; Bailey, 2006).

42

CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY OF THE STUDY Introduction This chapter discussed the research methods used in the study; it has been divided into sections that address the purpose of the study, sample and population, instrumentation, data collection and analysis, setting, variables, hypotheses, and limitations. This study used methods that were adapted from the suggestions provided in previous studies of reading, such as Hughes-Hassell and Lutz (2006) and Hughes-Hassell and Rodge (2007). Purpose of the Study The purpose of this research study was to investigate potential differences of what influences middle school students’ reading interests, leisure reading habits, and reading and academic achievement. This study included the completion of a survey that was disbursed to 479 students. The survey was used to gain further knowledge about this population based on the gender of the participants, their race or ethnicity, the educational levels of their parents, academic success (grades), and citizenship. Research Questions 1) What influences middle school students’ reading interests? How do they like to spend their free time? What are they passionate about? Why do they choose to read or not read? What are they reading? What types of characters do they like to read about?

43

2) What influences middle school students’ leisure reading habits? Why do middle school students read? Who encourages them to read? Where do they get their reading materials? What was the most popular reading material for these students in elementary and middle school? 3) What influences middle school students’ academic and reading success? Null Hypotheses 1) Gender, race or ethnicity, citizenship, grades, and parents’ educational levels do not influence middle school students’ reading interests. 2) Gender, race or ethnicity, citizenship, grades, and parents’ educational levels do not influence middle school students’ leisure reading habits. 3) Gender, race or ethnicity, citizenship, grades, and parents’ educational levels do not influence middle school students’ reading and academic success. Population and Sample Population There were 479 students attending this Piedmont North Carolina middle school. The racial breakdown of the school was 38.1% white, 19.5% black, 40.1% Hispanic, and 2.3% other. Eighty-six percent of the teachers at the school were fully licensed, 14% had advanced degrees, and none of the teachers were National Board Certified (North Carolina Department of Public Instruction, 2008). Sample The entire school population (N=479) was asked to participate in this survey with the hope of having the surveys completed and returned by 100 or more students to provide a 20% return rate or greater. One hundred and two surveys (n=102) were 44

returned. The students’ participation was completely voluntary, and there was no penalty if they chose to stop participating at any point in the study. The students completed a survey designed to assess how they spend their leisure time. Instrumentation Garson (2008) states that “Survey research is the method of gathering data from respondents thought to be representative of some population, using an instrument composed of closed structure or open-ended items (questions)” (para. 1). Survey research is a very popular form of data collection due to its efficiency (Garson, 2008). One survey was used in this study; it was completed by the participating students of one middle school in Piedmont North Carolina. The survey examined the independent variables of gender, race/ethnicity, parents’ educational levels, students’ academic success (grades), and students’ citizenship. The dependent variables of this study are students’ reading interests, students’ leisure reading habits, and students’ reading and academic success. The instrument was quantitative in nature, and it was adapted from surveys used in the following leisure reading studies: SmartGirl.com (1999), Hughes-Hassell & Lutz (2006), Hughes-Hassell & Rodge (2007), and Nippold et al. (2005). Adaptations were made by adding questions that related to the parents of the students to the original survey. A pilot test at a middle school with similar demographics was used to test the reliability and validity of the survey instrument. One hundred students taught by one eighth grade teacher and their parents were asked to participate. Thirty-six percent of the surveys were returned. When reviewing the pilot test surveys, feedback was used to edit questions related to inform the researcher about the students’ parents.

45

Data Collection and Analyses Data collected in this study were quantitative in nature, and survey responses were structured. The survey was organized so that the initial questions were nonthreatening. More sensitive questions such as students’ place of birth were placed at the end of the survey. The survey was also divided into sections as to prevent tiredness of the participants. The survey questions were created to avoid generality, and in many cases participants were allowed to choose more than one answer to a question to prevent participants from being mutually exclusive in their responses (Garson, 2008). In this study, the researcher obtained informed consent from participants and collected completed surveys from students who returned their informed consent forms. The researcher was not employed at this particular school, so there were no immediate relationships with the students or parents. Survey Data Collection and Analysis The middle school students were asked to complete the survey found in Appendix A. The student survey was based on surveys used in prior studies focused on the leisure reading habits of teenagers (SmartGirl.com, 1999; Hughes-Hassell & Lutz, 2006; Hughes-Hassell & Rodge, 2007; Nippold et al., 2005), and it included questions about the parents’ reading habits, the number of books in the home, etc. Statistical tests were used to analyze the student surveys. The following statistical tests were used to analyze the data: F-tests, T-tests, and descriptive statistics. Frequencies were also addressed with those survey questions requiring descriptive statistics to analyze them. To analyze the data, the information was coded into

46

categories. F-tests were administered to look at a difference of group means when there were more than two choices in the independent variables such as parents’ (mother and father) educational levels, and race or ethnicity. This allowed one to determine if the testing of the means was different enough to have occurred by chance, and to determine if the difference was significant enough to infer that the independent variable had an effect on the dependent variable (Garson, 2009). Significance of the F-test was determined at the .05 level meaning as stated by Garson (2009) “there is 5% chance or less that a correlation as strong or stronger than the given one would result from an unusual random sampling of data when in fact the correlation was zero”(para. 1). The Tukey test, a posthoc test, was used after the F-test showed a significant difference, and it helped to determine which group mean was significantly different (Garson, 2009). F-tests were specifically used in this research to analyze the following independent variables as they compared to questions with Likert-style responses: race or ethnicity, and parents’ educational levels. T-tests were used to analyze the portion of the data when the independent variables had only two choices. The T-test is used to test the difference of means similar to the F-test, but with a T-test, there is a single dependent variable and not multiple variables. The T-test is also similar to the F-test in that it shows significance at the .05 level (Garson, 2008). T-tests were specifically used in this research to analyze the following independent variables as they compared to questions with Likert-style responses: gender, citizenship, and grades (all but one response was located in two of the four choices, so T-tests were performed as opposed to F-tests for grades). Descriptive statistics were used to describe portions of the data. Frequencies were

47

examined for each question on the survey, and they were very important in questions asking students to choose all that applied to them on a given list. Questions that fit this format were 2, 3, 6, 8, 9-14, 16, 17, 32, and 33. Association was considered in addition to significance in a series of collected data. “In common usage ‘association’ refers to measures of strength of relationship in which at least one of the variables is a dichotomy, nominal, or ordinal” (Garson, 2008, para. 1). When measuring significance, one is testing the null hypothesis and the strength of the relationship which is not always seen because these consider sample size in addition to the relationship. If association is considered in addition to significance, then it is possible to see a relationship between variables even though it is not statistically significant, and “association is always relevant to research inferences” (Garson, 2008, para. 2). Both significance and association were reported in this research. When considering association, each independent variable was compared to survey questions 4, 5,7,15, and 18-31. Setting The study took place at a Piedmont North Carolina middle school. The county in which this school is located had a population approximately 27,358 citizens with a racial breakdown of 62.4% white, 19.8% black, 15.4% Hispanic, and 2.4% other (U.S. Census Bureau, 2009). Manufacturing, the education and health care systems, and Wal-Mart were the area’s largest employers (Montgomery County Chamber of Commerce, 2009). The rationale for choosing this site was the researcher had access due to previous attendance as a student in the school system. Permission was gained from the school and central office administration to conduct the study in this school. Since the entire school

48

was asked to participate, the sample included students of varying genders, race/ethnicities, and educational levels. Variables of the Study This survey examined the independent variables of gender, race/ethnicity, and parents’ educational levels, academic success (grades), and students’ citizenship. The dependent variables of this study were students’ reading interests, students’ leisure reading habits, and students’ reading and academic success. Limitations As stated earlier, there were several limitations in this study. This was a rural school district; findings may be different in a more populated and diverse community. The convenient sample taken from the school population did not completely match the population of the county. The racial breakdown of the school was 38.1% white, 19.5% black, 40.1% Hispanic, and 2.3% other (North Carolina Department of Public Instruction, 2008). The population of the county in which this school is located had a racial breakdown of 62.4% white, 19.8% black, 15.4% Hispanic, and 2.4% other (U.S. Census Bureau, 2009). Students self-reported academic success which may present accuracy issues (e.g., either under- or over-report their grades and other achievement). Since the researcher did not look at transcripts or other documents, the report depended upon the honesty and knowledge of the students. In addition to these limitations, most of the students that turned in the survey reported being students that made mostly A’s and B’s in their academic endeavors. This was a limitation because it was not the majority of students that attend the school, and it may provide a skewed picture of the students’ academic success as compared to other 49

variables. Students also provided information regarding their parents. This allowed students to report information out of speculation if they had limited knowledge of their parents’ backgrounds. This was a possibility for those students who were raised in a single parent home, as they may have limited knowledge of the other parent. Since students were asked to report whether they were born in the United States or a different country, some may not have answered truthfully if they feared repercussions. Summary This chapter has addressed the research design and methods that were used in this research. A combination of statistical tests was used to analyze the data: T-tests, F-tests, frequency of response through descriptive statistics, and association. These were appropriate due to the small sample size and nature of the research. Findings are displayed in the following chapter.

50

CHAPTER 4: FINDINGS Introduction The intent of this research study was to investigate potential differences of what influences middle grades students’ reading histories, leisure reading habits, and reading and academic achievement. Table 4.1 provides a detailed description of how the three research questions will be answered in this chapter. Table 4.1 Chapter 4 Organization Page Section Number 53 53 54 54 54 55 55 58 General Findings General Findings General Findings General Findings General Findings General Findings General Findings Results: Reading Interests Results: Reading Interests Results: Reading Interests

Topic

Analytical Methods Descriptive Statistics Descriptive Statistics Descriptive Statistics Descriptive Statistics Descriptive Statistics Descriptive Statistics Descriptive Statistics Descriptive Statistics Descriptive Statistics Descriptive Statistics

Research Question Number

Gender Race or Ethnicity Citizenship Grades Mother’s Educational Level Father’s Educational Level Daily Activities Free Time

Survey Question Number(s) 38 37 39 36 34 35 1

1

2

59

Interests

1

3

60

Why One Reads

1

6

51

60

61

62

63

Results: Reading Interests Results: Reading Interests Results: Reading Interests Results: Reading Habits

Why One Does Not Read What One Reads

Descriptive Statistics Descriptive Statistics Descriptive Statistics T-Test

1

8

1

10

Characters One Reads About Gender and Reading Habits

1

11

2

5, 7, 15, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 38 5, 7, 15, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 37 5, 7, 15, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 34 5, 7, 15, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 35 5, 7, 15, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 36 5, 7, 15, 18, 19, 20, 21,

64

Results: Reading Habits

Race or Ethnicity and Reading Habits

F-Test with Tukey

2

66

Results: Reading Habits

Mother’s Educational Level and Reading Habits

F-Test with Tukey

2

66

Results: Reading Habits

Father’s Educational Level and Reading Habits

F-Test with Tukey

2

68

Results: Reading Habits

Grades and Reading Habits

T-Test

2

69

Results: Reading

Citizenship and Reading Habits 52

T-Test

2

Habits

22, 23, 24, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 39 Why One Likes to Descriptive Read Statistics Who Encourages One to Read Where Does One Get Reading Materials What One Read In Elementary School What One Reads In Middles School What Are Parents Reading Race or Ethnicity and Academic and Reading Success Mother’s Educational Level and Academic and Reading Success Father’s Educational Level and Academic and Reading Success Descriptive Statistics Descriptive Statistics Descriptive Statistics Descriptive Statistics Descriptive Statistics F-Test with Tukey 2 20

70

71

71

72

72

73

73

74

Results: Reading Habits Results: Reading Habits Results: Reading Habits Results: Reading Habits Results: Reading Habits Results: Reading Habits Results: Academic and Reading Success Results: Academic and Reading Success Results: Academic and Reading Success

2

21

2

22

2

23

2

24

2

32-33

3

25, 37

F-Test with Tukey

3

25, 34

74

F-Test with Tukey

3

25, 35

Demographic Information of the Sample This sample (n=102) contained students in one rural middle school in Piedmont North Carolina. Of these 102 students, 39.2% (40) were male and 60.8% (62) were female. Table 4.2 shows the gender percentages and numbers reported. 53

Table 4.2 Gender (Q38) Gender Male Female 40 62 39.2 60.8

Number Percentage n=102

Thirty-nine and two-tenths percent (40) of these students were white, 13.7% (14) were black, 41.2% (42) were Latino, and 5.9% (6) were considered of another race or ethnicity. It is interesting to note that the numbers reported from the survey regarding

race or ethnicity were closely aligned the race or ethnicity of the actual population of the school (38.1% white, 19.5% black, 40.1% Hispanic, and 2.3% other). Table 4.3 provides the percentages and numbers reported for race or ethnicity. Table 4.3 Race or Ethnicity (Q37) Race or Ethnicity White Black Latino Other Number 40 14 42 6 Percentage 39.2 13.7 41.2 5.9 n=102 With regard to citizenship 88% (90) of the students reported being born in the United States, while 11.7% (12) reported being born elsewhere. Table 4.4 provides the percentages and numbers reported for citizenship. Table 4.4 Citizenship (Q39) Citizenship US Non Born US Born Number 90 12 Percentage 88.2 11.8 n=102

54

None of these students reported they regularly received grades lower than a D, while 1% (1) reported making mostly C’s and D’s. Twenty-six percent (26) reported making mostly B’s and C’s, and 73% (73) reported making mostly A’s and B’s. Table 4.5 provides the percentages and numbers reported for grades and academic success. Table 4.5 Grades (Q36) A’s and B’s 73 73 Grades B’s and C’s and C’s D’s 26 1 26 1 D’s and Below 0 0

Number Percentage n=100

Of the students surveyed, 31.3% (31) of their mothers were not high school graduates, 20.2% (20) graduated high school, 21.2% (21) had some college, and 27.3% (27) were college graduates or above. Table 4.6 provides the percentages and numbers reported regarding mother’s educational level. Table 4.6 Mother’s Educational Level (Q34) Mother’s Educational Level No High High School School Some Diploma Graduate College Number 31 20 21 Percentage 31.3 20.2 21.2 n= 99

College Graduate and Above 27 27.3

Of the students’ fathers, 32.9% (32) did not graduate high school, 27.8% (27) were high school graduates, 17.5% (17) has some college credit, and 21.6% (21) were college graduates or above. Table 4.7 provides the percentages and numbers reported regarding father’s educational level.

55

Table 4.7 Father’s Educational Level (Q35) No High School Diploma 32 32.9 Father’s Educational Level High School Some Graduate College 27 17 27.8 17.5 College Graduate and Above 21 21.6

Number Percentage n= 97 Students were asked how much time they spent engaged in certain activities in a typical day. Table 4.8 provides a list of these activities and the average amount of spent on these activities. Table 4.8 Time Spent in Daily Activities (Q1) Number of Students Reporting 87 89 85 8 88 86 Average Time Spent Engaged in Activities in Hours 7.57 1.17 0.84 1.27 3.80 9.83

Activity School Homework Chores Working at a job Free time Sleeping

Results Reading Interests Gender (p= .291) , race or ethnicity (p= .717), parents educational levels (mother p= .383 and father p= .144), academic success or grades (p= .14), and citizenship (p= .908) did not influence middle school students reading interests, thus proving the null hypothesis, when significance was determined at the .05 level. See Tables 4.9-4.14 for a summary of results for when considering middle school students’ reading interests. The following were considered: how often students read about things they are passionate

56

about, spend their free time, and what they are interested in. Why and what they read or do not read were also considered when examining their reading interests. Table 4.9 Gender and Reading Interests: T-test Gender Number Read Things -1.063 Passionate About (Q4) Note: Standard Deviations appear in parentheses below the means. *p< .05 Table 4.10 Race or Ethnicity and Reading Interests: F-test Race or Ethnicity White Number (40) Black (14) Latino (42) Other (6) F 0.451 p 0.717 Male (40) 2.62 (.979) Female (61) 2.82 (.764) t p 0.291

2.64 2.5 Read Things Passionate 2.82 2.79 About (Q4) (.931) (.893) (.791) (1.049 Standard deviations are listed below means in parentheses. *p< .05 Table 4.11 Mother’s Educational Level and Reading Interests: F-test Mother’s Educational Level High No School Some College Diploma Diploma College Degree + (31) (20) (21) (27)

F

p

Number

Read Things 2.71 2.55 2.62 2.96 Passionate About (.902) (.887) (.973) (.759) (Q4) Note: Standard Deviations appear in parentheses below the means. *p< .05

1.031

.383

57

Table 4.12 Father’s Educational Level and Reading Interests: F-test Father’s Educational Level High No School Some College Diploma Diploma College Degree + (31) (20) (21) (27)

F

p

Number

Read Things 2.81 2.41 2.82 2.95 Passionate About (.859) (.931) (.883) (.805) (Q4) Note: Standard Deviations appear in parentheses below the means. *p< .05 Table 4.13 Grades and Reading Interests: T-test Grades Mostly A’s and Mostly B’s B’s and C’s Number (73) (26) Read Things Passionate About 2.82 2.54 (Q4) (.872) (.811) Note: Standard Deviations appear in parentheses below the means. *p< .05 Table 4.14 Citizenship and Reading Interests: T-test Citizen Yes No Number (90) (12) Read Things Passionate About 2.72 2.75 (Q4) (.887) (.754) Note: Standard Deviations appear in parentheses below the means. *p< .05

1.845

.144

t -1.114

p .268

t -.117

p .908

Students provided information related to their interests. They had a variety of choices, and they could select more than one and write in other responses. The four most popular ways students enjoyed spending their free time were listening to music (83.3%), watching TV or videos (81.4%), hanging out with their friends (77.5%), and playing sports at (73.5%). It was interesting to note that none of the students stated that they 58

liked to spend their free time using email, instant messaging, or text messaging friends, but 60.8% noted that they enjoyed talking on the phone with friends. In Table 4.15 below, a comprehensive list of all frequencies is provided. In addition to the choices listed, students noted that they also enjoyed spending their free time doing chores, taking dance, spending time with their families, babysitting, eating, jump roping, taking an online Latin class, playing with a family pet, riding four-wheelers and go-carts, working out, scrapbooking, and singing. One student even commented “I write stories and play sports…a lot!” Table 4.15 Free Time Activities (Q2) Activity Listening to music Watching TV or video Hanging out with my friends Playing sports Playing computer or video games Talking on the phone with friends Browsing the Internet Participating in clubs Painting or drawing Playing cards or a board game Running or walking Riding a bicycle or scooter Swimming Shopping or going to the mall Reading Dancing Writing Cooking Crafts Playing music alone Playing music with my friends Skateboarding Rollerblading Listening to pod casts Volunteering in the community Listening to audio books Using email, instant messaging, or text messaging 59 Frequency 85 83 79 75 62 62 60 57 52 49 48 47 46 44 37 35 34 30 28 27 22 20 17 10 7 1 0 Percentage 83.3 81.4 77.5 73.5 60.8 60.8 58.8 55.9 51 48 47.1 46.1 45.1 43.1 36.3 34.3 33.3 29.4 27.5 26.5 21.6 19.6 16.7 9.8 6.9 1 0

The top four activities students listed they were passionate about were music (76.5%), friends/family (73.5%), sports (70.6%), and TV/movies (68.6%). In Table 4.16 below, a comprehensive list of all frequencies is provided. In addition to the choices listed, students indicated that they were also passionate about talking, math, ATV riding, camping, cooking, dancing, eating, everything, fighting, kids, marching band, pageants, scrapbooking, talking on the phone, video games and wrestling. Table 4.16 Interests (Q3) Activity Music Friends/Family Sports TV/Movies Internet Animals Shopping Art Theatre School Reading Religion Babysitting Romance Volunteering Writing

Frequency 78 75 72 70 62 54 47 45 34 31 26 26 25 17 17 15

Percentage 76.5 73.5 70.6 68.6 60.8 52.9 46.1 44.1 33.3 30.4 25.5 25.5 24.5 16.7 16.7 14.7

When students were asked why they read, the following was provided: they were bored and had nothing else to do (57.8%), they had to for school (55.9%), and they thought it was fun (48%), while on the other end of the spectrum students stated: teachers or librarians recommended materials to them (10.8%) and their friends read (4.9%). Table 4.17 shows the entire breakdown of why students read, and students could check more than one choice.

60

Table 4.17 Why Do You Read? (Q6) Activity Because I get bored and have nothing else to do Because I have to for school Just for fun To learn things on my own I really don’t read much Because my parents encourage me Because my teacher or school librarian recommend materials to me Because my friends read

Frequency 59 57 49 38 21 20 11

Percentage 57.8 55.9 48 37.3 20.6 19.6 10.8

5

4.9

When asked why they did not read, students remarked they would rather listen to music (45.1%), play sports (45.1%), spend time with friends (40.2%), and that reading was boring (39.2%). Only 9.8% stated that they were not good at reading, and 5.9% stated that their friends made fun of them for reading. Table 4.18 listed below shows all other frequencies of the choices provided, and students noted other reasons as to why they did not read, including spending time with their families, and one wrote “I just don’t like some stories.”

61

Table 4.18 Why Don’t You Read? (Q8) Activity I’d rather listen to music I’d rather play sports I’d rather spend time with my friends Boring/no fun I’d rather watch TV Too busy/no time I have trouble concentrating I’d rather surf the internet I’d rather play video games Reading makes me tired or gives me a headache Can’t get into the stories I can’t find anything to read that interests me I have too much school work Books are too long Boys are more interesting Girls are more interesting I’m not good at reading My friends make fun of me

Frequency 46 46 41 40 38 35 32 32 31 29 26 25 21 16 12 12 10 6

Percentage 45.1 45.1 40.2 39.2 37.3 34.3 31.4 31.4 30.4 28.4 25.5 24.5 20.6 15.7 11.8 11.8 9.8 5.9

Students were also given a variety of reading materials, and they were asked to choose which ones they read. Students were allowed to choose as many as they liked, and the most popular reading materials were as follows: fiction (72.5%), nonfiction (49%), music and entertainment magazines and the internet (39.2%). News and science magazines (9.8%) and the writing on packages (7.8%) were not marked as frequently. Table 4.19 is listed below and contains all options with corresponding frequencies.

62

Table 4.19 What Do You Read? (Q10) Activity Fiction books Nonfiction books Music magazines Entertainment magazines Stuff on the internet Sports/car/wrestling magazines Fashion/beauty magazines Comics Video game magazines Puzzle magazines Newspapers Skateboarding magazines Graphic Novels News magazines like Time or Newsweek Science magazines The writing on packages Computer manuals All of the above

Frequency 74 50 40 40 40 38 37 35 28 27 21 17 13 10 10 8 2 2

Percentage 72.5 49 39.2 39.2 39.2 37.3 36.3 34.3 27.5 26.5 20.6 16.7 12.7 9.8 9.8 7.8 2 2

Students were also asked which of the following characters/people they liked to read about. They could check all that applied, and they had the option to write in those not on the list. Students were most interested in people their age that had done cool or amazing things (51%), as well as characters like them (45.1%), and sports figures (45.1%). Table 4.20 lists all options with corresponding frequencies. Students also listed the books the teachers tell them to read, artists, cartoon characters, mystery stories, myths (gods/goddesses), people that are dare devils, people who tell the truth, poetry, rap music singers.

63

Table 4.20 Characters/People Interests (Q11) Activity Frequency People my age who have 52 done cool or amazing things People/characters like me 46 Sports figures 46 Animals 41 Fantasy characters-like super 39 heroes, people of other worlds, or the future People of characters my age 37 wrestling with tough issues, like drug abuse or crime Celebrities 37 People/characters who are a 33 lot different than me Musicians 22 Historical figures 11

Percentage 51 45.1 45.1 40.2 38.2

36.3

36.3 32.4 21.6 10.8

Leisure Reading Habits Gender, race or ethnicity, parents’ educational levels, academic success or grades, and citizenship did influence middle school students’ leisure reading habits, thus rejecting the null hypothesis when significance was determined at the .05 level. When examining students’ leisure reading habits several things were considered: how often students read, enjoy reading, would read more if they had more time, were read to when they were young, read at the same time as their family now, buy books and magazines, are encouraged to read, visited the library with their parents when they were young and now, and their parents read. How many books and magazines they own and subscribe to, how often their parents buy them books, why they like to read, who encourages them to read, where they get their materials, what their favorite reading materials, and what their parents read were also considered when examining their leisure reading habits.

64

Gender See Table 4.21 for a summary of findings for gender and middle school students’ leisure reading habits. A significant difference was found when considering often boys read (M= 2.7, SD= .723) compared to girls (M=3, SD= .658); t(77.932)= -2.112, p= .038; how often boys enjoy reading (M= 2.6, SD= .9) compared to girls(M=2.97, SD= .752); t(72.94)= -2.137, p= .036; how often boys would read if they had more time (M= 2.51, SD= .942) compared to girls(M=3.13, SD= .763); t(68.885)= -3.439, p= .001; how often boys buy books (M=1.77, SD= .667) compared to girls (M= 2.31, SD= .673); t(81.523)= -3.953, p<.001; and how often boys parents purchased books for them (M= 1.9, SD= .912) compared to girls(M=2.47, SD= .724); t(68.164)= -3.284, p= .002.

65

Table 4.21 Gender and Leisure Reading Habits: T-test Gender Number Frequency of -2.112 Reading (Q5) Enjoy Reading -2.137 (Q7) Read More if -3.439 Had More Time (Q15) Buy Books 1.77 2.31 -3.953 (Q18) (.667) (.673) Buy Magazines 2.1 2.36 -1.347 (Q19) (.882) (.967) Books Own 2.79 2.36 1.796 (Q20) (1.119) (1.212 2.32 2.72 -1.776 Magazine (1.093) (1.113) Subscriptions (Q21) Newspaper 1.68 1.51 1.63 Subscriptions (.475) (.504) (Q22) Read to When 2.57 2.84 -1.229 Young (Q23) (1.094) (1.019) Read with 1.86 1.82 .263 Family Now (.787) (.847) (Q24) Encouraged to 2.44 2.64 -.947 Read (Q26) (1.046) (1.075) Visit Library as 2.05 2.31 -1.263 a Child(Q27) (1.075) (.958) Visit Library 1.72 1.87 -.831 Now (Q28) (.857) (.903) Parents Buy 1.9 2.47 -3.284 Books (Q29) (.912) (.724) Mother Reads 2.51 2.8 -1.408 (Q30) (.942) (1.022) Father Reads 2.21 2.19 .08 (Q31) (.951) (.926) Note: Standard Deviations appear in parentheses below the means. *p< .05 Male (40) 2.7 (.723) 2.6 (.9) 2.51 (.942) Female (62) 3 (.658) 2.97 (.752 3.13 (.763) t p .038* .036* .001*

<.001* .32 .651 .651

.651

.349 .213

.737 .288 .965 .002* .668 .533

66

Race or Ethnicity See Table 4.22 for a summary of significance for race or ethnicity and middle school students’ leisure reading habits. An analysis of variance showed that the effect of race or ethnicity was significant as it related to how often a child reads, F (3, 98) =3.479, p=.019. The differences appeared significant according to the overall F test but the post hoc test, which is more conservative, showed that they were not. This was also the case when finding that the effect of race or ethnicity was significant as it related to how often a child purchases magazines, F (3, 97) =2.735, p=.048. An analysis of variance showed that the effect of race or ethnicity was significant as it related to how often a child purchased books, F (3, 97) =4.801, p=.004. Post hoc analysis using the Tukey post- hoc criterion for significance indicated that book buying was significantly lower for students who were Latino (Mean = 1.88, SD= .633) versus students who were white (Mean = 2.32, SD=.694), and students who were considered of other race (Mean = 1.5, SD= .548) versus students who were white (Mean = 2.32, SD=.694). Similarly, the effect of race or ethnicity was significant as it related to how often a child was read to by their parents when they were young, F (3, 95) =7.754, p<.001. Post hoc analysis using the Tukey post- hoc criterion for significance indicated that how often a child was read to by their parents when they were young was significantly lower for students who were Latino (Mean = 2.2, SD= .98) versus students who were white (Mean = 3.18, SD=.844), and students who were Latino (Mean = Mean = 2.2, SD= .98) versus students who were black (Mean = 3.08, SD=1.165). An analysis of variance showed that the effect of race or ethnicity was significant as it related to how often a child visited the library with their parents when they were

67

younger, F (3, 97) =4.443, p=.006. Post hoc analysis using the Tukey post- hoc criterion for significance indicated that this was significantly lower for students who were Latino (Mean = 1.86, SD= .872) versus students who were white (Mean = 2.58, SD=1.01). In addition, the effect of race or ethnicity was significant as it related to how often a mother reads, F (3, 96) =3.93, p=.011. Post hoc analysis using the Tukey post- hoc criterion for significance indicated that how often a mother reads was significantly lower for students who were Latino (Mean = 2.32, SD= .879) versus students who were white (Mean = 3.03, SD=.903). An analysis of variance also showed that the effect of race or ethnicity was significant as it related to how many books a family owns, F(3,96)=7.661, p<.001. Post hoc analysis using the Tukey post- hoc criterion for significance indicated that how many books a family owned was significantly lower for students who were Latino (Mean = 2.05, SD= 1.125) versus students who were white (Mean = 3.1, SD=.982), and students who were considered other (Mean = 1.67, SD= 1.211) versus students who were white (Mean = 3.1, SD=.982). It also showed that the effect of race or ethnicity was significant as it related to if parents thought their child was a good reader, F(3,96)=4.228, p=.007. Post hoc analysis using the Tukey post- hoc criterion for significance indicated that this was significantly lower for students who were Latino (Mean = 2.76, SD= .906) versus students who were white (Mean = 3.28, SD=.905), and students who were Latino (Mean = 2.76, SD= .906) versus students who were black (Mean = 3.58, SD=.669).

68

Table 4.22 Race or Ethnicity and Leisure Reading Habits: F-test Race or Ethnicity Number Frequency of Reading (Q5) Enjoy Reading (Q7) Read More if Had More Time (Q15) Buy Books (Q18) White (40) 3.03 (.8) 2.93 (.829) 2.95 (.932) 2.32 (.694) 2.52 (.905) Black (14) 3.08 (.862) 2.93 (.663) 3.08 (.862) 2.31 (.855) 2.38 (1.12) Latino (42) 2.71 (.554) 2.64 (.879) 2.83 (.853) 1.88 (.633) 2 (.885) Other (6) 2.33 (.516) 3 (.632) 2.33 (.816) 1.5 (.548) 1.83 (.983) F 3.479 p .019**

1.026 1.1 4.801

0.385 0.353 .004*

Buy Magazines (Q19)

2.735

.048**

Books Own (Q20)

3.1 (.982) 2.77 (1.121 ) 1.49 (.506) 3.18 (.844) 1.95 (.876) 3.28 (.905) 2.58 (1.01)

2.58 (1.24) 2.58 (1.084 ) 1.42 (.515) 3.08 (1.165 ) 2.25 (1.055 ) 3.08 (.954) 2.46 (1.05)

Magazine Subscriptions (Q21) Newspaper Subscriptions (Q22) Read to When Young (Q23) Read with Family Now (Q24) Encouraged to Read (Q26) Visit Library as a Child(Q27)

2.05 (1.125 ) 2.38 (1.081 ) 1.64 (.485) 2.2 (.98) 1.63 (.662) 2.43 (.991) 1.86 (.872)

1.67 (1.211 ) 2.17 (1.472 ) 1.83 (.408) 2.67 (1.033 ) 1.67 (.516) 2.5 (1.049 ) 1.83 (.983)

7.661

<.001*

1.093

.356

1.624 7.754

.189 <.001*

2.294

0.083

1.278

0.286

4.443

.006*

69

Visit Library Now (Q28)

1.8 (.883) 2.38 (.782) 3.03 (.903)

1.92 (.862) 2.54 (.776) 2.86 (1.231 )

1.76 (.906) 2.07 (.894) 2.32 (.879)

1.83 (.983) 1.83 (.753) 2.5 (1.049 )

0.11

0.954

Parents Buy Books (Q29)

2.014 3.93

0.117 .011*

Mother Reads (Q30)

2.26 2.31 2.12 2.17 0.19 0.903 (1.093 (.947) (.791) (.753) ) Note: **= The differences appeared significant according to the overall F test but the post hoc test, which is more conservative, showed that they were not. Means shown were significantly different based on Tukey post hoc criterion for significance. Standard deviations are listed below means in parentheses. *p< .05 Parents’ Educational Levels mother’s educational level. See Tables 4.23-4.24 for a summary of significance for parents’ educational levels and middle school students’ leisure reading habits. An analysis of variance showed that the effect of the mother’s education level was significant as it related to how often a child purchases books, F (3, 95) =3.258, p=.025. Post hoc analysis using the Tukey post- hoc criterion for significance indicated that this was significantly lower for students whose mother had no high school diploma (Mean = 1.84, SD= .638) versus students whose mother had a college degree and above (Mean = 2.41, SD=.694). Similarly it related to how often a child purchases magazines, F (3, 95) =3.699, p=.015. Post hoc analysis using the Tukey post- hoc criterion for significance indicated that this was significantly lower for students whose mother had no high school diploma (Mean = 1.94, SD=.929) versus students whose mother had a college degree and above (Mean = 2.63, SD=.884).

Father Reads (Q31)

70

An analysis of variance showed that the effect of the mother’s education level was significant as it related to how often a child was read to by their parents when they were young, F(3,93)=7.38, p<.001. Post hoc analysis using the Tukey post- hoc criterion for significance indicated this was significantly lower for students whose mother had no high school diploma (Mean = 2.23, SD= 1.006) versus students whose mother had some college credit (Mean = 3.15, SD=1.04), and students whose mother had no high school diploma (Mean = 2.23, SD= 1.006) versus students whose mother had a college degree and above (Mean = 3.26, SD=.764). The effect of the mother’s education level was also significant as it related to how often a child visited the library with their parents when they were younger, F (3, 94) =6.362, p=.001. Post hoc analysis using the Tukey posthoc criterion for significance indicated that this was significantly lower for students whose mother had no high school diploma (Mean = 1.74, SD= .855) versus students whose mother had some college credit (Mean = 2.8, SD=1.005), and students whose mother had no high school diploma (Mean = 1.74, SD= .855) versus students whose mother had a college degree and above (Mean = 2.48, SD=1.014). An analysis of variance showed that the effect of the mother’s education level was significant as it related to how often a mother reads, F (3, 93) =11.275, p<.001. Post hoc analysis using the Tukey post- hoc criterion for significance indicated that how often mother reads was significantly lower for students whose mother had no high school diploma (Mean = 2.19, SD= .91) versus students whose mother had some college credit (Mean = 3.05, SD=.805), students whose mother had no high school diploma (Mean = 2.19, SD= .91) versus students whose mother had a college degree and above (Mean = 3.33, SD=.877), students whose mother had a high school diploma (Mean = 2.28, SD=

71

.752) versus students whose mother had some college credit (Mean = 3.05, SD=.805), and students whose mother had a high school diploma (Mean = 2.28, SD= .752) versus students whose mother had a college degree and above (Mean = 3.33, SD=.877). Also the mother’s education level was significant as it related to how many books a family owns, F (3, 94) =5.626, p=.001. Post hoc analysis using the Tukey post- hoc criterion for significance indicated that how many books a family owns was significantly lower for students whose mother had no high school diploma (Mean = 1.94, SD= 1.031) versus students whose mother had some college credit (Mean = 3, SD=1.214), and students whose mother had no high school diploma (Mean = 1.94, SD= 1.031) versus students whose mother had a college degree and above (Mean = 2.96, SD=1.018). Finally, the effect of the mother’s education level was significant as it related to how many magazines a family subscribes to, F (3, 94) =3.01, p=.034. Post hoc analysis using the Tukey post- hoc criterion for significance indicated that this was significantly lower for students whose mother had no high school diploma (Mean = 2.13, SD= 1.024) versus students whose mother had a college degree and above (Mean = 2.89, SD=1.086).

72

Table 4.23 Mother’s Educational Level and Leisure Reading Habits: F-test Mother’s Educational Level High School Some College Diploma College Degree + (20) (21) (27) 2.85 (.587) 2.65 (.875) 2.55 (.945) 2.05 (0.686) 2.5 (0.827) 2.35 (1.268) 2.8 (1.105) 1.5 (.513) 2.45 (0.999) 1.74 (.806) 2.2 (1.005) 2 (0.858) 1.55 (.759) 2.15 (.813) 2.28 (.752) 3.05 (.669) 2.95 (.669) 3 (.837) 2.14 (0.793) 2.05 (0.973) 3 1.214 2.35 (1.137) 1.63 (.496) 3.15 (1.04) 2.05 (.887) 2.6 (1.095) 1.74 (.885) 2.15 (.933) 2.14 (.854) 3.05 (.805) 3.07 (.829) 3.04 (.706) 3.04 (.808) 2.41 (.694) 2.63 (.884) 2.96 (1.018) 2.89 (1.086) 1.44 (.506) 3.26 (.764) 2 (.877) 2.78 (1.086) 2.48 (1.014) 1.89 (.934) 2.54 (.811) 3.33 (.877)

Number Frequency of Reading (Q5) Enjoy Reading (Q7) Read More if Had More Time (Q15) Buy Books (Q18)

No Diploma (31) 2.65 (.608) 2.71 (.938) 2.87 (.957) 1.84 (.638) 1.94 (.929 1.94 (1.031) 2.13 (1.024) 1.71 (.461) 2.23 (1.006) 1.65 (.709) 2.61 (.989) 1.74 (1.005) 1.65 (.839) 2.13 (.846) 2.19 (.91)

F

p

2.37 1.291 1.322 3.258

0.075 0.282 0.272 .025*

Buy Magazines (Q19) Books Own (Q20) Magazine Subscriptions (Q21) Newspaper Subscriptions (Q22) Read to When Young (Q23) Read with Family Now (Q24) Encouraged to Read (Q26) Visit Library as a Child(Q27) Visit Library Now (Q28) Parents Buy Books (Q29) Mother Reads (Q30) Father Reads (Q31)

3.699

.015*

5.626 3.01

.001* .034*

1.649 7.38

0.184 <.001*

1.481 1.222 6.362

0.225 0.306 .001*

2.047 1.471 11.275

0.113 0.227 <.001* 0.131

2.23 1.79 2.33 2.42 1.926 (.858) (.787) (.913) (1.065) Note: Means shown were significantly different based on Tukey post hoc criterion for significance. Standard deviations are listed below means in parentheses. *p< .05

73

father’s educational level. An analysis of variance showed that the effect of the father’s education level was significant as it related to how often a child reads, F (3, 93) =3.091, p=.031. Post hoc analysis using the Tukey post- hoc criterion for significance indicated that frequency of reading was significantly lower for students whose father had no high school diploma (Mean = 2.75, SD=.622) versus students whose father had a college degree and above (Mean = 3.29, SD=.784) and students whose father had some college credit (Mean = 2.82, SD= .809) versus students whose father had a college degree and above (Mean = 3.29, SD=.784). The same was true of the effect of the father’s education level as it related to a child’s buying books, F(3,92)=3.456, p=.02. Post hoc analysis using the Tukey post- hoc criterion for significance indicated that this was significantly lower for students whose father had no high school diploma (Mean = 1.88, SD= .707) versus students whose father had a college degree and above (Mean = 2.48, SD=.75). An analysis of variance showed that the effect of the father’s education level was significant as it related to a child’s buying magazines, F(3,92)=3.199, p=.027. Post hoc analysis using the Tukey post- hoc criterion for significance indicated that magazine buying was significantly lower for students whose father had no high school diploma (Mean = 1.97, SD= .967) versus students whose father had a college degree and above (Mean = 2.76, SD=.889). Similarly, the effect of the father’s education level was significant as it related to how often a child was read to by their parents when they were young, F (3, 90) =7.105, p<.001. Post hoc analysis using the Tukey post- hoc criterion for significance indicated that this was significantly lower for students whose father had no high school diploma (Mean = 2.29, SD= 1.071) versus students whose father had 74

some college credit (Mean = 3.31, SD=.793), students whose father had no high school diploma (Mean = 2.29, SD= 1.071) versus students whose father had a college degree and above (Mean = 3.33, SD=.73), and students whose father had a high school diploma (Mean = 2.62, SD= 1.023) versus students whose father had a college degree and above (Mean = 3.33, SD=.73). An analysis of variance showed that the effect of the father’s education level was significant as it related to how often a child reads at the same time as their family now, F(3,90)=3.457, p=.02. Post hoc analysis using the Tukey post- hoc criterion for significance indicated that this was significantly lower for students whose father had no high school diploma (Mean = 1.56, SD= .759) versus students whose father had some college credit (Mean = 2.31, SD=.704). In addition, the effect of the father’s education level was significant as it related to how often a child visited the library with their parents when they were younger, F (3, 92) =7.187, p<.001. Post hoc analysis using the Tukey post- hoc criterion for significance indicated that this was significantly lower for students whose father had no high school diploma (Mean = 1.81, SD= .931) versus students whose father had some college credit (Mean = 3, SD=.816), students whose father had no high school diploma (Mean = 1.81, SD= .931) versus students whose father had a college degree and above (Mean = 2.57, SD=.978), and students whose father had a high school diploma (Mean =2.04, SD= .94) versus students whose father had some college credit(Mean = 3, SD=.816), An analysis of variance showed that the effect of the father’s education level was significant as it related to how often a child visited the library with their parents now, F(3,92)=5.065, p=.003. Post hoc analysis using the Tukey post- hoc criterion for

75

significance indicated that visiting the library now was significantly lower for students whose father had no high school diploma (Mean = 1.59, SD= .798) versus students whose father had some college credit (Mean = 2.5, SD=.816), and students whose father had a high school diploma (Mean = 1.59, SD= .747) versus students whose father had some college credit (Mean = 2.5, SD=.816). Similarly, the father’s education level was significant as it related to how often parents bought books for their child, F (3, 91) =3.478, p=.019. Post hoc analysis using the Tukey post- hoc criterion for significance indicated that this was significantly lower for students whose father had no high school diploma (Mean = 2.06, SD= .878) versus students whose father had a college degree and above (Mean = 2.7, SD=.733), and students whose father had a high school diploma (Mean = 2, SD= .693) versus students whose father had a college degree and above (Mean = 2.7, SD=.733). In addition, the effect of the father’s education level was significant as it related to how often a mother reads, F (3, 91) =8.608, p<.001. Post hoc analysis using the Tukey post- hoc criterion for significance indicated that this was significantly lower for students whose father had no high school diploma (Mean = 2.31, SD= .896) versus students whose father had a college degree and above (Mean = 3.43, SD=.811), and students whose father had a high school diploma (Mean = 2.36, SD= .995) versus students whose father had a college degree and above (Mean = 3.43, SD=.811). An analysis of variance showed that the effect of the father’s education level was significant as it related to how many books a family owns, F(3,91)=6.83, p<.001. Post hoc analysis using the Tukey post- hoc criterion for significance indicated that how many books a family owns was significantly lower for students whose father had no high

76

school diploma (Mean = 1.91, SD= 1.027) versus students whose father had some college credit (Mean = 3, SD=1.155), and students whose father had no high school diploma (Mean = 1.91, SD= 1.027) versus students whose father had a college degree and above (Mean = 3.14, SD=.91). Similarly, the effect of the father’s education level was significant as it related to how many magazines a family subscribes to, F (3, 91) =3.523, p=.018. Post hoc analysis using the Tukey post- hoc criterion for significance indicated this was significantly lower for students whose father had no high school diploma (Mean = 2.09, SD= 1.058) versus students whose father had a college degree and above (Mean = 3.05, SD=.865).

77

Table 4.24 Father’s Educational Level and Leisure Reading Habits: F-test Father’s Educational Level No High School Some College Diploma Diploma College Degree + Number (32) (27) (17) (21) Frequency of Reading (Q5) Enjoy Reading (Q7) Read More if Had More Time (Q15) Buy Books (Q18) 2.75 (.622) 2.84 (.847) 2.84 (.92) 1.88 (.707) 1.97 (.967) 1.91 (1.027) 2.09 (1.058) 1.72 (.457) 2.29 (1.071) 1.56 (.759) 2.44 (1.014) 1.81 (.931) 1.59 (.798) 2.06 (.878) 2.31 (.896) 2.12 (.833) 2.78 (0.577) 2.67 (.877) 2.77 (.908) 2 (0.693) 2.19 (0.895) 2.65 (1.231) 2.65 (1.231) 1.5 (.51) 2.62 (1.023) 2.62 (1.023) 2.48 (1.156) 2.04 (.94) 1.59 (.747) 2 (.693) 2.36 (.995) 2 (.913) 2.82 (.809) 2.65 (.862) 3 (.866) 2.24 (0.664) 2.24 (0.903) 3 (1.155) 2.63 (1.088) 1.67 (.488) 3.31 (.793) 2.31 (.705) 2.94 (.772) 3 (.816) 2.5 (.816) 2.41 (0.795) 3 (0.791) 2.53 (1.007) 3.29 (.784) 3.1 (.7) 2.95 (.921) 2.48 (.75) 2.76 (.889) 3.14 (.91) 3.05 (.865) 1.38 (.0498) 3.33 (.73) 2 (0.949) 2.71 (1.146) 2.57 (.978) 1.9 (0.995) 2.7 (.733) 3.43 (.811) 2.38 (1.024)

F 3.091

P .031*

1.333 0.289 3.456

0.268 0.833 .02*

Buy Magazines (Q19) Books Own (Q20)

3.199

.027*

6.83

<.001*

Magazine Subscriptions (Q21) Newspaper Subscriptions (Q22) Read to When Young (Q23) Read with Family Now (Q24) Encouraged to Read (Q26) Visit Library as a Child(Q27) Visit Library Now (Q28) Parents Buy Books (Q29) Mother Reads (Q30) Father Reads (Q31)

3.523

.018*

2.434

0.07

7.105 3.457

.001* .02*

0.999 7.187 5.065

0.397 <.001* .003*

3.487

.019*

8.608

<.001*

1.415

0.244

Note: Means shown were significantly different based on Tukey post hoc criterion for significance. Standard deviations are listed below means in parentheses. *p< .05

78

Academic Success and Grades See Table 4.25 for a summary of significance grades and academic success educational levels and middle school students’ leisure reading habits. There was a significant difference between how often students making mostly B’s and C’s would read if they had more time (M= 2.58, SD= .857) compared to students making mostly A’s and B’s (M=3.03, SD= .849); t (43.712) = -2.308, p= .026. There was a significant difference between how often students making mostly B’s and C’s buy books (M=1.88, SD= .588) compared to students making mostly A’s and B’s (M=2.19, SD= .739); t (54.959) = -2.13, p=.038.

79

Table 4.25 Grades and Leisure Reading Habits: T-test Grades Mostly A’s and B’s Mostly B’s and C’s t Number (73) (26) Frequency of Reading 2.95 2.77 (Q5) (.705) (.652) 1.157 Enjoy Reading (Q7) 2.92 2.69 (.829) (.679) 1.245 Read More if Had More 3.03 2.58 2.308 Time (Q15) (.849) (.857) Buy Books (Q18) 2.19 1.88 -2.13 (.739) (.588) Buy Magazines (Q19) 2.26 2.27 .044 (.972) (.874) Books Own (Q20) 2.61 2.19 -.785 (1.181) (1.234) Magazine Subscriptions 2.62 2.42 -.75 (Q21) (1.093) (1.206) Newspaper Subscriptions 1.58 1.54 -.377 (Q22) (.497) (.508) Read to When Young 2.77 2.73 -.185 (Q23) (1.031) (1.041) Read with Family Now 1.85 1.85 .006 (Q24) (.856) (.732) Encouraged to Read 2.6 2.58 -.085 (Q26) (1.057) (.987) Visit Library as a 2.19 2.35 .71 Child(Q27) (1.073) (.892) Visit Library Now (Q28) 1.85 1.73 -.57 (.914) (.827) Parents Buy Books (Q29) 2.28 2.23 -.246 (.791) (.951) Mother Reads (Q30) 2.73 2.62 -.513 (.999) (.983) Father Reads (Q31) 2.21 2.2 -.052 (.955) (.913) Note: Standard Deviations appear in parentheses below the means *p< .05 Citizenship See Table 4.26 for a summary of significance for citizenship and middle school students’ leisure reading habits. There was a significant difference between how often 80 p 0.253 .216 .026* .038* .965 .434 .458 .738 .855 .995 .932 .481 .57 .806 .608 .958

students born in the United States visited the library with their parents when they were younger (M=2.29, SD= 1.025) compared to students not born in the United States (M=1.67, SD= .651); t (19.298) = 2.88, p=.009. A significant difference was also found between how often students born in the United States visit the library with their parents now (M=1.87, SD= .894) compared to students not born in the United States (M=1.33, SD= .651); t(17.164)= 2.526, p=.022. Similarly, a significant difference between how many books students born in the United States’ families own (M=2.65, SD= 1.175) compared to students not born in the United States (M=1.5, SD= .798); t (18.267) = 4.378, p<.001. A significant difference between how many magazine subscriptions students born in the United States’ families receive (M=2.64, SD= 1.126) compared to students not born in the United States (M=1.92, SD= .9); t(16.103)= -2.514, p=.023, as well as between whether or not students born in the United States’ families subscribe to a newspaper (M=1.53, SD= .502)compared to students not born in the United States (M=1.83, SD= .389); t(16.516)= -2.445, p=.026.

81

Table 4.26 Citizenship and Leisure Reading Habits: T-test Citizen Yes No Number (90) (12) Frequency of Reading 2.89 2.75 (Q5) (.726) (.452) Enjoy Reading (Q7) 2.88 2.33 (.791) (.985) Read More if Had More 2.89 2.83 Time (Q15) (.885) (.937) Buy Books (Q18) 2.13 1.75 (.726) (.622) Buy Magazines (Q19) 2.28 2 (.953) (.853) Books Own (Q20) 2.65 1.5 (1.175) (.798) Magazine Subscriptions 2.64 1.92 (Q21) (1.126) (.9) Newspaper Subscriptions 1.53 1.83 (Q22) (.502) (.389) Read to When Young 2.76 2.5 (Q23) (1.034) (1.168) Read with Family Now 1.88 1.55 (Q24) (.828) (.688) Encouraged to Read 2.58 2.5 (Q26) (1.064) (1) Visit Library as a 2.29 1.67 Child(Q27) (.1.025) (.651) Visit Library Now (Q28) 1.87 1.33 (.894) (.651) Parents Buy Books (Q29) 2.27 2 (.827) (.953) Mother Reads (Q30) 2.72 2.42 (1.005) (.9) Father Reads (Q31) 2.223 2 (.956) (.667) Note: Standard Deviations appear in parentheses below the means *p< .05 Other Findings

t .918 1.838 .19 1.971 1.056 4.378 2.514 2.445 .729 1.463 .272 2.88 2.526 .944 1.064 .971

p .37 .089 .852 .067 .308 <.001* .023* .026* .479 .166 .79 .009* .022* .362 .304 .349

Students provided information about their leisure reading habits. They had a variety of choices and could select more than one with the option to write in additional

82

responses. In addition, students were asked why they chose to read. Students had a list of choices and had the ability to mark more than one answer. The main reasons the students chose to read was for fun (46.1%), relaxation (38.2%), and excitement (34.3%), while 11.8% stated brain stimulation and motivation. Table 4.27 listed below shows all other frequencies of the choices provided, and students indicated other reasons why they chose to read including liking the books, read for school, “I just like some stories,” “I like the genre of the stories,” “it’s interesting,” “My parents make me,” nothing else to do, and status. Table 4.27 Why Do You Like Reading? (Q9) Activity For fun It’s relaxing It’s exciting It’s educational/to learn something For a time filler I get attached to the characters I’m reading about For escape For brain stimulation For motivation Frequency 47 39 35 33 31 30 26 12 12 Percentage 46.1 38.2 34.3 32.4 30.4 29.4 25.5 11.8 11.8

Students were asked when they read other than for school assignments, and they stated: at night (46.7%), after school (21.6%), during summer vacation (9.8%), on the bus (8.8%), and when they were sick (4.9%). Students were also asked who encouraged them to read, and they had the option to select all that applied to their own lives. Table 4.28 shows the breakdown of the frequencies in which this occurred, they selected: parents (64.7%) and teachers (54.9%). The public librarian (9.8%) encouraged the students the least. Students also had the option to list others that encouraged them in addition to those provided on

83

the survey. Students listed aunt, pastor, grandparents, family, uncle, and me. One student commented “My grandmother, she reads a lot!!” Table 4.28 Sources of Reading Encouragement (Q13) Activity Frequency My parents 66 My teacher 56 My school librarian 28 My brother or sister 22 No one 20 My friends 18 The public librarian 10

Percentage 64.7 54.9 27.5 21.6 19.6 17.6 9.8

Students were asked where they got most of their reading materials. They, like in previous questions, could choose all that applied, and they had the option to write in other places from which they got their reading materials. Table 4.29 shows the frequency of each place to acquire reading materials, and the school library (73.5%) was selected most often. In addition to those listed, students also stated they got their reading materials from book fairs, articles, grandparents, home, neighbors, and Wal-Mart. Table 4.29 Location of Reading Materials (Q14) Activity Frequency From the school library 75 From a bookstore 46 From my classroom 32 From the public library 27 From my parents 26 From my friends 21

Percentage 73.5 45.1 31.4 26.5 25.5 20.6

One survey question asked students to list their favorite type of reading material in elementary and middle school. In this section students could check only one as their favorite. In elementary school they responded most frequently to: fiction (52.9%) and joke books (19.6%). The bottom of the spectrum in elementary school showed: graphic

84

novel (1%) and no one listed the newspaper. Table 4.30 provides frequency and percentages for elementary reading materials. Table 4.30 Favorite Elementary Reading Material (Q16) Activity Frequency Percentage Fiction book 54 52.9 Joke book 20 19.6 Nonfiction book 9 8.8 Magazine 4 3.9 Biography 3 2.9 Poetry 3 2.9 Comic book 3 2.9 The Internet 3 2.9 Graphic Novel 1 1 Newspaper 0 0

In middle school fiction books (48%) were still selected most, but nonfiction (17.6%) was more popular than joke books (7.8%). Comic books (2.9%) and newspapers (0%) were the bottom selection in middle school. Table 4.31 provides the frequencies and percentages for middle school reading materials. Table 4.31 Favorite Middle Grades Reading Material (Q17) Activity Frequency Fiction book 49 Nonfiction book 18 Joke book 8 Magazine 7 The Internet 7 Graphic Novel 4 Biography 2 Poetry 2 Comic book 2 Newspaper 0

Percentage 48 17.6 7.8 6.9 6.9 3.9 2 2 2 0

Students were also asked to answer several questions about their parents. Mothers were reading books (42.2%), magazines (38.2%), newspapers (33.3%), and the

85

internet (20.6%). Fathers read: books (21.6%), magazines (27.5%), newspapers (52%), and the internet (18.6%). Academic and Reading Success Race or ethnicity and parents’ educational levels did influence middle school students’ academic and reading success, thus rejecting the null hypothesis when significance was determined at the .05 level. Gender, academic success or grades, and citizenship did not have an influence on middle school students’ academic and reading success when significance was at the .05 level. When examining academic and reading success the students’ perception of how their parents’ feel they are as a reader was considered. Race or Ethnicity See Table 4.32 for summary of significance for race or ethnicity and middle school students’ academic and reading success. An analysis of variance showed that the effect of race or ethnicity was significant as it related to whether parents thought their child was a good reader, F(3,96)=4.228, p=.007. Post hoc analysis using the Tukey posthoc criterion for significance indicated that parents thought their child was a good reader was significantly lower for students who were Latino (Mean = 2.76, SD= .906) versus students who were white (Mean = 3.28, SD=.905), and students who were Latino (Mean = 2.76, SD= .906) versus students who were black (Mean = 3.58, SD=.669).

86

Table 4.32 Race or Ethnicity and Academic and Reading Success: F-test Race or Ethnicity Latin White Black o Other F Number (40) (14) (42) (6)

p

Parents think 3.28 3.58 2.76 3.5 4.228 .007* Child Good (.905) (.669) (.906) (.837) Reader (Q25) Note: Means shown were significantly different based on Tukey post hoc criterion for significance. Standard deviations are listed below means in parentheses. *p< .05 Parents’ Educational Levels See Tables 4.33-4.34 for summary of significance for parents’ educational levels and middle school students’ academic and reading success. An analysis of variance showed that the effect of the mother’s education level was significant as it related to whether parents think their child is a good reader, F(3,94)=6.34, p=.001. Post hoc analysis using the Tukey post- hoc criterion for significance indicated that parents think their child is a good reader was significantly lower for students whose mother had no high school diploma (Mean = 2.97, SD= .912) versus students whose mother had some college credit (Mean =3.7, SD=.657), students whose mother had a high school diploma (Mean = 2.6, SD= .94) versus students whose mother had some college credit (Mean =3.7, SD=.657), and students whose mother had a high school diploma (Mean = 2.6, SD= .94) versus students whose mother had a college degree and above (Mean = 3.3, SD=.823).

87

Table 4.33 Mother’s Educational Level and Academic and Reading Success: F-test Mother’s Educational Level High No School Some College Diploma Diploma College Degree + F Number (31) (20) (21) (27)

p

Parents 2.97 2.6 3.7 3.3 6.34 .001* think Child (.912) (.94) (.657) (.823) Good Reader (Q25) Note: Means shown were significantly different based on Tukey post hoc criterion for significance. Standard deviations are listed below means in parentheses. *p< .05 Similar results were found when considering the fathers and their educational level, F (3, 91) =3.51, p=.018. Post hoc analysis using the Tukey post- hoc criterion for significance indicated that parents think their child is a good reader was significantly lower for students whose father had no high school diploma (Mean = 2.94, SD= .982) versus students whose father had some college credit (Mean = 3.75, SD=.577), and students whose father had a high school diploma (Mean = 2.96, SD= .958) versus students whose father had some college credit(Mean = 3.75, SD=.577).
Table 4.34 Father’s Educational Level and Academic Success: F-test Father’s Educational Level No Diploma (32) High School Diploma (27) Some College (17) College Grad + (21) F P

Number

Parents think 2.94 2.96 3.75 3.24 3.51 .018* Child Good (.577) (.958) (.577) (0.831) Reader (Q25) Note: Means shown were significantly different based on Tukey post hoc criterion for significance. Standard deviations are listed below means in parentheses. *p< .05

88

Other Findings Gender, academic and reading success, and citizenship showed not to be significant when compared to how good of a reader parents think their children are. Tables 4.35-4.37 provide the findings in these areas. Table 4.35 Gender and Academic and Reading Success: T-test Gender Male Female t Number (40) (61) Parents think 3.05 3.15 -1.776 Child Good (.985) (.891) Reader (Q25) Note: Standard Deviations appear in parentheses below the means. *p< .05 Table 4.36 Grades and Academic and Reading Success: T-test Grades Mostly A’s Mostly B’s and and B’s C’s (73) (26) 3.08 3.27 (.915) (.874) p .079

t

p .364

Number .918 Parents think Child Good Reader (Q25) Note: Standard Deviations appear in parentheses below the means. *p< .05 Table 4.37 Citizenship and Academic and Reading Success: T-test Citizen Yes No t Number (90) (12) Parents think Child 3.15 2.83 1.006 Good Reader (Q25) (.904) (1.03) Note: Standard Deviations appear in parentheses below the means. *p< .05

p .332

89

Conclusion In this chapter, one was able to obtain the results as they compared the various independent variables with the middle school students reading interests, leisure reading habits, and academic and reading success. Findings were also provided that were of a descriptive nature. The final chapter of this study was used to synthesize the results, consider their implications for practice, and make recommendations of how these findings can be used to increase middle school students’ leisure reading habits and academic success.

90

CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSIONS Introduction In this chapter, the major results were synthesized and discussed. Implications for practice were explored and recommendations made on how these findings can increase the leisure reading practices of middle school students. The purpose of this research was to investigate potential differences of what influences middle school students’ reading interests, leisure reading habits, and reading and academic achievement. Three research questions were used to investigate the reading practices of middle school students. Results were reported in the previous chapter. Results First Hypotheses: Reading Interests Summary of Findings Gender, race or ethnicity, parents educational levels, academic success or grades, and citizenship did not influence middle school students reading interests, thus proving the null hypothesis, when significance was determined at the .05 level. How do the Findings Relate to the Literature When students were asked why they read, the following was provided: they were bored and had nothing else to do, they had to for school, and they thought it was fun, while on the other end of the spectrum students stated: teachers or librarians recommended materials to them and their friends read (Table 4.17, page 61). Students participating in this study stated they did not read because they would rather do other 91

things such as listen to music, play sports, spend time with friends, etc. (Table 4.18, page 62). This was relevant as previous research found that there are many competing factors that begin to take time away from leisure reading, such as friends, sports, music, video games, computers, etc. (Abeyrantha & Zainab, 2004; Creel, 2007; Hughes-Hassell & Rodge, 2007; Nippold et al., 2005; Strommen & Mates, 2004; Wicks, 1994). Students’ participation in activities other than reading was also important to note as many middle school students go home to an empty house in which they must attend to chores or care for younger siblings instead of participating in leisure reading (McKool, 2007). Hughes-Hassell and Lutz (2006) found that students enjoy reading periodicals and stories about people with similar interests. It was also discovered that magazines and newspapers were popular sources of reading (Hughes-Hassell & Lutz, 2006). This was relevant to this study’s findings as middle school students reported reading fiction, nonfiction, and magazines most often (Table 4.19, page 63). Magazines are more socially acceptable among their peer groups than traditional books are, and it is important that students read these as magazines increase fluency and other reading skills (HughesHassell & Lutz, 2006; Hughes-Hassell & Rodge, 2007). In their teens, low frequency readers would prefer to read online, as would most boys, where girls tend to prefer books as a source for their reading (Scholastic & Yankelovich, 2008). Findings from this study reflected this as students read fiction and nonfiction materials most often, but listed magazines and the internet as well. It is also important to note that students did report they enjoyed reading about people their age with similar interests, athletes, fantasy, celebrities, etc., as shown in Table 4.20 on page 64 (Hughes-Hassell & Lutz, 2006; Hughes-Hassell & Rodge, 2007).

92

Implications for Practice When examining the reading interests of middle school students, there are several implications for practice. It is possible that the students’ interests are not seen as academic by their teachers; therefore, students feel they do not have the ability to read about the topics they are interested in. Also, if reading is strictly seen as a school activity, children may feel that what they read outside of school assignments does not qualify as reading. It is also possible that the materials the children are interested in are not subjects that are located in the libraries, classrooms, or homes. Students need materials they can relate to, including reading materials that are about characters like them, as well as nonfiction material that relates to popular culture. Students are more likely to enjoy reading if they can connect to it and see the impact the literature has on their own lives. It would be effective for libraries, classrooms, and homes to be filled with reading materials that are not always fiction or nonfiction, but other print media such as newspapers, magazines, electronic resources, etc. Teachers (since most are female) must also be aware that many students (males especially) prefer to read material other than fiction. Teacher recommendations must reflect this, providing a variety of material covering different genres. Second Hypothesis: Leisure Reading Habits Summary of Findings Gender, race or ethnicity, parents’ educational levels, academic success or grades, and citizenship did influence middle school students’ leisure reading habits, thus rejecting the null hypothesis when significance was determined at the .05 level. When examining students’ leisure reading habits several things were considered: amount of time spent

93

reading, enjoyment of reading, would the students read more if they had more time, did their parents read to them when they were young, does their family read at the same time now, how often students buy books and magazines, how often they are encouraged by their parents to read, how often they visited the library with their parents when they were young, how often they visit the library with their families now, how often their parents read, how many books and magazines they own and subscribe to, and how often their parents buy them books. How do the Findings Relate to the Literature gender. See Table 4.21 on page 66 for a summary of significance for gender and middle school students’ leisure reading habits. As a significant difference was found between how often boys read compared to girls, and how often they would read if they had more time; previous research agreed and found adolescents (males in particular) are not reading books, but are beginning to read more magazines and newspapers. This is an issue because schools do not consider the reading of these materials as actual reading or educational (Haupt, 2003). A rich reading environment at the home and school was found to create avid readers that are both male and female (Chen, 2008; Doiron, 2003; Morgan et al., 2008; Sullivan, 2004). Findings showed the majority of males and females never/rarely buy books and magazines and never visited the library in the past or now with their parents, as well as a majority of males are never/rarely encouraged to read by their parents, this connects to previous research showing that early encouragement and access to reading is linked to academic and reading success as children age (Britto & Brooks-Gunn, 2001).

94

race or ethnicity. See Table 4.22 on page 69 for a summary of significance for race or ethnicity and middle school students’ leisure reading habits. A child’s race or ethnicity and their parents’ educational levels were found to affect how often a child reads, purchases, or owns reading materials, visits the library, etc. This information from the current study related to previous findings when considering that with race or ethnicity, factors such as parents’ educational levels, which is used in this study as a predictor of socioeconomic status are relevant. Parents, especially those with no high school diploma, are more likely to live in poverty, face higher unemployment rates, and receive fewer job opportunities. These parents are also found to be less likely to read to their children when they are young (DeBruin-Parecki & Krol-Sinclair, 2003; Phillips et al., 2006). Also, as the parents’ educational levels grow, students are more likely to be engaged in reading practices before ever entering school (Britto& Brooks-Gunn, 2001; Compton- Lilly, 2003). This leaves low-income children behind before they ever begin school as they are missing experiences and access developed in the home. As they grow older, these same situations continue, as these children and their parents lack access to facilities such as the library for they may not have transportation, the resources to pay late fines, or the basic ability to use the resources provided to them (Phillips et al., 2006; Storch & Whitehurst, 2001). parents’ educational levels. See Tables 4.23-4.24 on pages 73 and 78 for a summary of significance for parents’ educational levels and middle school students’ leisure reading habits. Aligned with this study, findings in previous research show that parents with higher educational levels are more involved in the education of their children, and these

95

educational levels correlate with the parents’ reading habits (DeBruin-Parecki & KrolSinclair, 2003). This shows their children they value leisure reading and the children then are more likely to do the same, especially when there are more reading materials in the home (Abeyrantha & Zainab, 2004; Bailey, 2006; McKool, 2007). This leads to low income children being left to obtain their reading materials from schools or other sources which may not have resources the children are interested in reading in their leisure time (McKool, 2007). academic success and grades. See Table 4.25 on page 80 for a summary of significance grades and academic success educational levels and middle school students’ leisure reading habits. This research study found most often that students with higher grades enjoyed reading, would read more often if they had more time, and were read to when they were young. This was supported by prior research as McKool (2007) found that there was a strong correlation to out-of-school reading and academic success. Other studies also commented that leisure reading promoted readers’ attitudes and motivation to read because they could choose what they were interested in as well as material that was generally easier to read assisting in their comprehension, leading to their overall growth in academics (McKool, 2007; Nippold et al., 2005). Abeyrantha and Zainab (2004) agreed and added that when children read for pleasure, improve their overall reading ability. Other findings agreed with this study when considering students overall academic success as it related to their leisure reading habits. Adolescents do read three to four times a week outside of school, but this is overlooked because they are not reading school-like material (Moje et al., 2008).

96

citizenship. See Table 4.26 on page 82 for a summary of significance for citizenship and middle school students’ leisure reading habits. other results. In addition to the significant findings, descriptive information was provided about the leisure reading habits of these students (Table 4.27, page 83). Students listed they chose to read because it was fun, relaxing, and exciting. This was similar to previous findings stating that students were motivated to read for fun, to learn something new, relax, escape, and relieve boredom (Camp, 2007; Hughes-Hassell & Rodge, 2007). When asked when they read, they stated at night, after school, during summer vacation, on the bus, and when they were sick. Students were also asked who encouraged them to read (Table 4.28, page 84), and they had the option to select all that applied to their own lives. They listed parents and teachers most often. This was relevant as reading as a leisure activity occurs most often when children are encouraged by their parents. It was found that adolescents were also encouraged to read by their teachers, school librarians, and siblings (Abeyrantha & Zainab, 2004; Bailey, 2006; HughesHassell & Lutz, 2006; Hughes-Hassell & Rodge, 2007; McKool, 2007; Strommen & Mates, 2004). Students were asked where they got most of their reading materials (Table 4.29 page 84), and the school library was selected most often. Previous research supported this and added that many children do not have adequate reading materials at home or school due inadequate funding, supplies, and resources (Bailey, 2006; McKool, 2007; Temple & MaKinster, 2005).

97

In elementary school, students stated that their favorite reading materials were fiction and joke books. Table 4.30 on page 85 provides more information about the favored elementary reading materials. In middle school fiction books were still selected most, but nonfiction was more popular than joke books. Table 4.31 on page 85 provides the frequencies and percentages for favored middle school reading materials. Students were also asked what their parents reading materials of choice were. Mothers read books most often and fathers read: books newspapers. This could be compared to previous research as these students are reading outside of school, but this reading is overlooked because they are not reading novels, short stories, and poetry, but rather websites, music lyrics, emails, letters, and magazines (Moje et al., 2008). Implications for Practice A positive impact is seen among females, white children, students whose parents have higher educational levels, students making higher grades, and students that are born in the United States. There are several recommendations that could be made from these findings. Males could be encouraged to read, not only in school, but in the home, community, etc. Positive role models need to be in place to allow males to see older males they respect reading. Also, a variety of materials need to be available that will allow them choice in their leisure reading as well as allow them to see that materials other than fiction books are acceptable reading resources. As race or ethnicity and parents’ educational levels can be identified with one’s socioeconomic status, it is important that parents with low educational levels and those of color be provided with tools to help their children become willing readers. This could be

98

through a program such as family literacy or through quick self-help suggestions sent home with the child. It is important that these people, like all others know that it is important to value literature and literacy, and to support the reading habits of their children through discussion about what they are reading, trips to the school and public library, etc. Teachers are key contributors to these findings and they can do many things to assist in the improvement of middle school students’ leisure reading practices. Community nights, especially helpful with the parents of English language learners, could assist in the dissemination of reading materials and other information to the parents. Although many parents feel that they do not have the skills to assist their children in reading, they could help if the teachers provided them with suggestions such as discussing what the students read each day, selecting appropriate materials, etc. School librarians who are closely aligned with teachers could offer opportunities to encourage reading. This could be done by setting up scheduled book check-out times with teachers, reading to the classes visiting the library, doing book talks of new, high interest materials, providing access to the library before and after school, and offering book club opportunities. Also, as academic success has shown to be affected by the leisure reading habits of children, it is important for parents to encourage their middle school students to read at home. It is equally important that teachers allow time during school for students to select their own reading materials and provide time for silent reading where students have the opportunity to read material they chose. It is also important that teachers not discourage children from reading alternatives to books such as magazines, newspapers, and the

99

internet, but to encourage this as any reading will help boost a student’s ability to comprehend academic reading assignments.

Third Hypothesis: Academic and Reading Success Summary of Findings Race/ethnicity and parents’ educational levels did influence middle school students’ academic and reading success, thus rejecting the null hypothesis when significance was determined at the .05 level. Academic success or grades and citizenship did not have an influence on middle school students’ academic and reading success when significance was at the .05 level. When examining academic and reading success the students’ perception of how they felt their parents’ viewed their reading ability was considered. How do the Findings Relate to the Literature? race or ethnicity. See Table 4.32 on page 87 for summary of significance for race or ethnicity and middle school students’ academic and reading success. Race or ethnicity could be used with the educational levels of the parents when considering what is lowincome, and be considered as many low-income children and their parents lack the experiences to create prior knowledge, and they lack print materials in the home. Families in these situations are also plagued with financial issues as they go through school, and many times they lack access to facilities such as the library for they may not have transportation, the resources to pay late fees, or have the basic ability navigate the stacks (Phillips et al., 2006; Storch & Whitehurst, 2001). parents’ educational levels. See Tables 4.33-4.34 on page 88 for summary of significance for parents’ educational levels and middle school students’ academic and 100

reading success. This is related to the findings associated with race or ethnicity as previous research shows that 70% of children from low income homes comprehend at basic or below basic reading levels possibly due to the fact that low-income families have less reading materials at home, and what they do have access to is not age appropriate or interesting to the child (Hughes-Hassell & Rodge, 2007; McKool, 2007). Implications for Practice When a student’s reading and academic success is linked to the grades he or she makes several things should be considered. These children were not exposed to as much print as others when they were young, and they continue to see little as they grow older causing them to not experience reading and academic success. Teachers must see this as a gap in these children’s educational lives and try to provide as much exposure to print in and out of the classroom as possible. It is also possible that what reading materials these children have access to in the home is not appropriate as they have matured since they were possibly given books and what is in their homes is not interesting to them anymore. To amend this, it is important to provide these students and their parents with lists of possible reading materials that might be appropriate and interesting to them being sure to expand their selections as well to include materials other than fiction books. Teachers and parents must encourage these children to read by allowing them to choose their own reading materials. It is important to also advocate to parents the importance of reading in one’s leisure time. Teachers could discuss this with parents and discuss with them how to help encourage their children. This could be by taking their children to the library, reading at the same time as them, reading in front of them, discussing reading together, etc.

101

Conclusion This study yielded several significant findings: 1) Gender, race or ethnicity, citizenship, grades, and parents’ educational levels did not influence middle school students’ reading interests. 2) Gender, race or ethnicity, citizenship, grades, and parents’ educational levels did influence middle school students’ leisure reading habits. 3) Race or ethnicity, and parents’ educational levels did influence middle school students’ reading and academic success. Gender A significant difference was found when considering often boys read compared to girls; how often boys enjoy reading compared to girls; how often boys would read if they had more time compared to girls; how often boys buy books compared to girls; and how often boys parents purchased books for them compared to girls. These findings can be linked to previous research by Britto and Brooks-Gunn (2001). Race or Ethnicity Race or ethnicity was significant as it related to how often a child reads. It was significant as it related to how often a child purchased books among the Latino and students marking of other race versus white students. Similarly, the effect of race or ethnicity was significant as it related to how often a child was read to by their parents when they were young between Latino students and white and black students. Race or ethnicity was significant as it related to how often a child visited the library with their parents when they were younger among Latino students versus white students. In addition, the effect of race or ethnicity was significant as it related to how

102

often a mother reads between Latino students and white students. It was significant as it related to how many books a family owns between Latino students and students who were considered of other race. It also showed significance as it related to if parents thought their child was a good reader among Latino students versus white and black students. Race or ethnicity was also significant as it related to whether parents thought their child was a good reader among Latino students versus students who were white or black, and students who were Latino versus students who were black. These findings connected to research previously completed by Phillips et al. (2006) and Storch and Whitehurst (2001). Parents’ Educational Levels mother’s educational level. A mother’s educational level was significant as it related to how often a child purchases books especially between those with no high school diploma and those with a college degree and above. Similarly it related to how often a child purchases magazines with mothers having no high school diploma versus those who had a college degree and above. A mother’s educational level was significant as it related to how often a child was read to by their parents when they were young, when considering mothers with no high school diploma versus those with some college credit or a college degree and above. This was also the case when considering how often a child visited the library with their parents when they were younger and how often a mother reads. Also the mother’s education level was significant as it related to how many books a family owns, especially among mothers with no high school diploma versus mothers with some college credit or a college degree and above. Finally, the effect of the mother’s education level was

103

significant as it related to how many magazines a family subscribes to among mothers with no high school diploma versus mothers with a college degree and above. The mother’s education level was also significant as it related to whether parents think their child is a good reader among mothers with no high school diploma and those with some college credit, and those with a high school diploma versus those with some college credit or a college degree and above. father’s educational level. The father’s educational level was significant as it related to how often a child reads, especially among fathers with no high school diploma or some college credit versus fathers with a college degree and above. Similar findings relating to the effect of the father’s educational level were found as they related to a child’s buying books. A father’s educational level was significant as it related to a child’s buying magazines among fathers with no high school diploma and those with a college degree and above. The effect of the father’s education level was significant as it related to how often a child was read to by their parents when they were young when comparing fathers with no high school diploma versus those with some college credit or a college degree and above, those with a high school diploma versus those with a college degree and above. The effect of the father’s education level was significant as it related to how often a child reads at the same time as their family now when considering fathers with no high school diploma versus those with some college credit. In addition, the effect of the father’s education level was significant as it related to how often a child visited the library with their parents when they were younger, especially among those with a high

104

school diploma or less and those with some college credit and among those with no high school diploma and a college degree and above. The father’s educational level was significant as it related to how often a child visited the library with their parents now; this was among fathers with high school diploma or less and those with some college credit. Similarly, the father’s education level was significant as it related to how often parents bought books for their child among fathers with a high school diploma or less and those with a college degree or more. The same was true when considering the father’s educational level and how often a mother reads. An analysis of variance showed that the effect of the father’s education level was significant as it related to how many books a family owns, especially those with versus those with some college credit or higher. Similarly, the effect of the father’s education level was significant as it related to how many magazines a family subscribes to among those with no high school diploma and those with a college degree and above. Similar results were found when considering the fathers and their educational level. These were significant among fathers with a high school diploma or less versus those with some college credit or a college degree or more. Findings related to parents’ educational levels were related to previous research by De- Abeyrantha and Zainab (2004), Bailey (2006), DeBruin-Parecki and Krol-Sinclair (2003), and McKool (2007). Academic Success and Grades There was a significant difference between how often students making mostly B’s and C’s would read if they had more time compared to students making mostly A’s and

105

B’s. There was also a significant difference between how often students making mostly B’s and C’s buy books compared to students making mostly A’s and B’s. Previous studies had similar results (McKool, 2007; Nippold et al., 2005). Citizenship There was a significant difference between how often students born in the United States visited the library with their parents when they were younger compared to students not born in the United States; between how often students born in the United States visit the library with their parents now compared to students not born in the United States. Similarly, a significant difference between how many books students born in the United States’ families own compared to students not born in the United States; between how many magazine subscriptions students born in the United States’ families receive compared to students not born in the United States, as well as between whether or not students born in the United States’ families subscribe to a newspaper compared to students not born in the United States. These findings could be tied to previous research (Rong & Preissle, 1998). Limitations of the Study As stated earlier, there were several limitations in this study. This was a rural school district; findings may be different in a more populated and diverse community. The convenient sample taken from the school population did not completely match the population of the county. The racial breakdown of the school was 38.1% white, 19.5% black, 40.1% Hispanic, and 2.3% other (North Carolina Department of Public Instruction, 2008). The population of the county in which this school is located had a racial breakdown of 62.4% white, 19.8% black, 15.4% Hispanic, and 2.4% other (U.S. Census

106

Bureau, 2009). Students self-reported academic success which may present accuracy issues (e.g., either under- or over-report their grades and other achievement). Since the researcher did not look at transcripts or other documents, the report depended upon the honesty and knowledge of the students. In addition to these limitations, most of the students that turned in the survey reported being students that made mostly A’s and B’s in their academic endeavors. This was a limitation because it was not the majority of students that attend the school, and it may provide a skewed picture of the students’ academic success as compared to other variables. Students also provided information regarding their parents. This allowed students to report information out of speculation if they had limited knowledge of their parents’ backgrounds. This was a possibility for those students who were raised in a single parent home, as they may have limited knowledge of the other parent. Since students were asked to report whether they were born in the United States or a different country, some may not have answered truthfully if they feared repercussions. Significance of the Study For policy makers, this study is significant as it provides proof that gender, race or ethnicity, the educational levels of parents, academic success, and citizenship do affect middle school children’s leisure reading interests, leisure reading habits, and academic and reading success. This information should be considered when planning programs, and programs should be instituted that will educate parents and middle school children about the importance of reading in one’s leisure time, regardless of their gender, race, or other social variable, as a way to advance oneself.

107

For educators, these same findings are significant as they provide motivation to further encourage student selected reading as a tool that will promote leisure reading to the students. These findings provide a look into the lives of the children in a school setting and cause educators to be aware of the interests of their students and work them into the instructional strategies they use daily. Researchers must continue to examine these variables as children continue on in middle and high school. These findings prove to be closely related to the theoretical model that was adapted for use in this study. Family Literacy and the sociocultural aspects that were considered, although previously used to study elementary school students, were still relevant for middle-school-aged children. With this proving to be significant, it is imperative that theories such as family literacy be expanded to include the education of older children and their families. Recommendations for Future Research In the future, more research focusing on the reading histories and habits of middle and high school students should be initiated. Following up with those students who participated in this research would be a way to investigate if their leisure reading habits improved or declined as they entered high school. It would also be beneficial to complete surveys of the parents to better determine if the parents’ reading histories and habits determined those of the children. Qualitative research, possibly in a follow-up format with these same students, would be another positive step as students could provide a more detailed account of their reading habits and interests to better explain their current leisure reading habits. This would allow them to provide information on genres, titles, etc. of the materials they do read. It would also be beneficial to focus future research on

108

what teachers of middle and high school students are doing in their classrooms to encourage leisure reading. Educators advise that researching the reading histories and leisure reading habits of middle school students is a necessary venture when teaching these students. It is important to understand where these students come from, what they have access to, and what their interests are if their needs are to be met in the classroom (Hughes-Hassell & Rodge, 2007; McKool, 2007; Nippold et al., 2005). Whether it is action research or research on a larger scale, this group of students has yet to be heavily studied when it comes to reading. Research to determine how students view and define reading might be a useful topic in the future, as this will help teachers change the current mindset that reading is strictly a school activity, but rather that it is an integral part of our daily lives and an activity that can be beneficial for intellectual growth and personal pleasure regardless of the chosen format and regardless of age, race, gender, or socioeconomic status (Hughes-Hassell & Rodge, 2007; McKool, 2007; Nippold et al., 2005). Summary This study looked to determine what contributed to middle school students reading practices. Their reading interests, leisure reading habits, and academic and reading success were compared with multiple independent variables. Findings revealed that gender, race or ethnicity, parents’ educational levels, academic success or grades, and citizenship did influence middle school students’ leisure reading habits and race or ethnicity, and parents’ educational levels did influence middle school students’ academic and reading success

109

Appendix A Student Leisure Time Interests and Activities Survey

Student Leisure Time Interests and Activities Survey We are interested in how you spend your time, specifically your leisure time and the activities you enjoy when you are not working or at school. There are no “right” or “wrong” answers. We just want to know about your interests outside work and school. Student’s Interests and Activities 1. How much time do you think you spend engaged in the following in a typical day? (Complete only those that apply to you.) School _________________ Homework ______________ Chores _________________ Working at a job __________ Free time _______________ Sleeping _____________

2. How do you like to spend your free time? (Check all that apply.) o o o o o o o o o o o Browsing the Internet Cooking Crafts Dancing Hanging out with my friends Listening to music Listening to pod casts Listening to audio books Painting or drawing Participating in clubs Playing cards or a board game (e.g. Monopoly, chess, checkers, etc.) Playing computer or video games Playing sports (e.g. basketball, baseball, football, soccer, etc.) Playing music alone Playing music with my friends o Reading (e.g. books, magazines, newspapers, etc.) o Riding a bicycle or scooter o Rollerblading o Running or walking o Shopping or going to the mall o Skate boarding o Swimming o Talking on the phone with friends o Using email, Instant Messaging, or text messaging to talk to friends o Volunteering in the community (community service) o Watching TV or videos o Writing (e.g. diary, poetry, notes to friends, blog, music, etc.)

o o o o

o Other: (please write in) __________________________________________ 3. What activities or subjects are you absolutely passionate about? (Check all that apply).

110

o o o o o o o o o

Sports Reading Internet Art Shopping Music Friends/Family Romance Religion

o o o o o o o o

Animals Theater TV/Movies School Volunteering Writing Babysitting Other (please write in) _______________________

4. Do you ever read about the thing or things you’re passionate about? o o o o Frequently Sometimes Rarely Never

5. How often do you read? o o o o Frequently Sometimes Rarely Never

6. When you read, why do you read? (Check all that apply). o o o o o o o o Because my parents encourage me to Just for the fun Because my friends read Because I get bored and have nothing else to do Because I have to for school To learn new things on my own Because my teacher or school librarian recommend materials to me I really don’t read much

7. Do you enjoy reading? o o o o Frequently Sometimes Rarely Never

8. If you don’t read much or don’t like reading, why not? For example, if you don’t read, is it because you don’t have time, because you think it’s boring, etc.? (Check all that apply). 111

o o o o o o o o o o o

Too busy/no time o I’d rather play sports Boring/not fun o I’d rather play video games Can’t get into the stories o I’d rather surf the Internet Boys are more interesting o I’d rather watch TV Girls are more interesting o I’d rather spend time with my I have too much school work friends Reading makes me tired or gives o I can’t find anything to read that me a headache interests me I have trouble concentrating o Books are too long I’m not good at reading o My friends make fun of me I’d rather listen to music Other (please write in) ____________________________

9. If you like to read, why do you read? For example, if you like to read, is it because it’s fun, because you get attached to the characters in the books, etc. (Check all that apply). o o o o o o o o o o 10. For escape For fun It’s educational/to learn something For brain stimulation It’s relaxing For a time filler For motivation I get attached to the characters I’m reading about It’s exciting Other (please write in)_____________________________ When you do read, which of the following do you read? (Check all that apply). Circle your favorite o o o o o o o o o Newspapers Fiction books Nonfiction books Fashion/beauty magazines Comics Graphic novels Sports/car/wrestling magazines Skate boarding magazines Video game magazines o News magazines like Time or Newsweek o Music magazines o Entertainment magazines o Puzzle magazines o Stuff on the Internet o Computer manuals o The writing on packages o Science magazines o All of the above

112

11. Which of the following characters/people do you like to read about? (Check all that apply). o o o o o o o o o o o People/characters like me People/characters who are a lot different than me Fantasy characters—like super heroes, people of other worlds, or the future People or characters my age wrestling with tough issues, like drug abuse or crime People my age who have done cool or amazing things Celebrities Animals Musicians Sports figures Historical figures Other (please write in) ________________________

12.

Outside of reading for school assignments, when do you do most of your reading? o o o o o o o at night. after school. during the summer or while I am on vacation. on weekends. on the bus. when I’m sick. in the morning.

Student’s Reading History and Background 13. Who in your life encourages you to read? (Check all that apply). o o o o o o o o 14. My friends My parents My brother or sister My teacher My school librarian The public librarian No one Other (please write in) __________________________

When you read, where do you get your materials? (Check all that apply). o o o o o o From the public library From the school library From my classroom From a bookstore From my friends From my parents 113

o Other (please write in) ______________________________

15.

If you had more time, how often would you read? o o o o Frequently Sometimes Rarely Never

16. What was your favorite type of reading material when you were in elementary school? (Choose only one) o o o o o o o o o o Fiction book Nonfiction book Biography Joke book Poetry Graphic Novel Comic book Magazine Newspaper The Internet

17.

What is your favorite type of reading material in middle school? (Choose only one) o o o o o o o o o o Fiction book Nonfiction book Biography Joke book Poetry Graphic Novel Comic book Magazine Newspaper The Internet

18.

How often do you buy books? o o o o Frequently Sometimes Rarely Never

19.

How often do you buy magazines? o Frequently 114

o Sometimes o Rarely o Never 20. How many books does your family own? o o o o 21. More than 50 25-50 10-25 10 or less

How many magazines does your family subscribe to? o More than 5 o 3-5 o 1-2 o 0 Does your family subscribe to a newspaper? o Yes o No How often did your parents read to you when you were young? o Frequently o Sometimes o Rarely o Never How often does your family read at the same time now? o Frequently o Sometimes o Rarely o Never Do your parents think you are good reader? o Yes o Maybe o Not sure o No Do your parents encourage you to read in your leisure time? o Frequently o Sometimes o Rarely o Never How often did you visit the library with your parents when you were younger? o Frequently o Sometimes o Rarely 115

22.

23.

24.

25.

26.

27.

o Never 28. How often do you visit the library with your parents now? o Frequently o Sometimes o Rarely o Never How often do your parents buy books for you? o Frequently o Sometimes o Rarely o Never How often does your mom read? o Frequently o Sometimes o Rarely o Never How often does your dad read? o Frequently o Sometimes o Rarely o Never When your mom reads, what does she read? o Books o Magazines o Newspapers o The Internet When your dad reads, what does he read? o Books o Magazines o Newspapers o The Internet What is your mom’s educational level? o Not a high school graduate o High school graduate o Some college o College graduate and above What is your dad’s educational level? o Not a high school graduate o High school graduate o Some college o College graduate and above 116

29.

30.

31.

32.

33.

34.

35.

Student’s General Information 36. Describe the grades you receive most of the time. o o o o 37. Mostly A’s and B’s Mostly B’s and C’s Mostly C’s and D’s Mostly D’s and below

What is your race or ethnicity? o o o o White Black Latino Other

38.

What is your gender? o Male o Female

39.

Were you born in the United Stated? a. Yes b. No

117

Appendix B Assent Form

University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill Assent to Participate in a Research Study Minor Subjects (7-14 yrs) ________________________________________________________________________ IRB Study #_____________________ Consent Form Version Date: 12/7/08 Title of Study: A Study of Middle Grades Students’ Reading Histories, Habits, and Achievement. Person in charge of study: Nichole Smith Where they work at UNC-Chapel Hill: Graduate Student in the Ed.D. Program in Curriculum and Instruction Other people who work on the study: Dr. Barbara Day, Faculty Advisor Study contact phone number: 336-625-2748 Study contact Email Address: nicholes@email.unc.edu Faculty Advisor phone number: 910-962-7739 Faculty Advisor Email Address: bday1@email.unc.edu

The people named above are doing a research study. These are some things we want you to know about research studies: Your parent needs to give permission for you to be in this study. You do not have to be in this study if you don’t want to, even if your parent has already given permission. You may stop being in the study at any time. If you decide to stop, no one will be angry or upset with you. Sometimes good things happen to people who take part in studies, and sometimes things we may not like happen. We will tell you more about these things below. Why are they doing this research study? The purpose of this research study is to learn about the reading histories, habits, and attitudes of adolescents. I am interested in how much adolescents read during their free time, what they like to read, and where they get the things they read. The reason for doing this research is to help teachers and librarians order materials and create programs that help adolescents be interested in reading in their free time. Why are you being asked to be in this research study? You are being asked to participate in this study because you are a middle school student, and I am interested in learning about your reading histories, habits, and attitudes. All the students in 118

your school are being invited to participate. Your teacher is willing to let you use up to 30 minutes of first period class time on one day for this study. How many people will take part in this study? If you decide to be in this study, you will be one of approximately 450 people in this research study. What will happen during this study? During this study, you will be asked to complete a short survey about how you spend your free time outside of school and your leisure reading habits. You may choose not to answer any question on the survey for any reason. The survey will be completed in your first period class at East Middle School and should take no more than 30 minutes. You will NOT put your name on the survey. If you are not in the study, you would simply do silent reading instead. Who will be told the things we learn about you in this study?

The information that is gathered from the study will be shared with educators, parents, and librarians. I will look at the responses of all the students who are in the study to learn what students as a group say.

What are the good things that might happen? People may have good things happen to them because they are in research studies. These are called “benefits.” You may not benefit from being in this research study, but you will help others in the future, and completing the survey may be interesting to you. What are the bad things that might happen? There are no known risks involved with this study, however, the study will take some of your time. The survey has been designed to minimize the amount of time it will take you to complete; it will take approximately 30 minutes. You should report any problems to the researcher. What if you or your parents don’t want you to be in this study? To protect your privacy, I will be the only person to have access to the surveys. Only a number will be recorded on the survey to assist with data entry. No names will be recorded on the surveys. The completed surveys will be locked up in a file cabinet in Mrs. Smith’s office Your first period teacher and the students in your class are likely to know that you are participating in the study; however, they will not know anything you tell us in your survey because they will not see your responses. I am the only adult who will have access to this information. At the end of the study, all surveys and notes that I have written about your responses will be destroyed. Participants will not be identified in any report or publication. Will you get any money or gifts for being in this research study? You will not receive any money or gifts for being in this research study. 119

Who should you ask if you have any questions? If you have questions you should ask me, Nichole Smith, the person listed on the first page of this form. If you have other questions about your rights while you are in this research study you or your parents may contact the Institutional Review Board at 919-966-3113 or by email to IRB_subjects@unc.edu. -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Title of Study: A Study of Middle Grades Students’ Reading Histories, Habits, and Achievement. Principal Investigator: Mrs. Nichole Smith If you sign your name below, it means that you agree to take part in this research study.

_________________________________________ Sign your name here if you want to be in the study

_______________ Date

_________________________________________ Print your name here if you want to be in the study

120

Appendix C Parental Permission Form University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill Parental Permission for a Minor Child to Participate in a Research Study Social Behavioral Form ________________________________________________________________________ IRB Study #_____________________ Consent Form Version Date: 12/7/08 Title of Study: A Study of Middle Grades Students’ Reading Histories, Habits, and Achievement. Principal Investigator: Nichole Smith UNC-Chapel Hill Department: Curriculum and Instruction UNC-Chapel Hill Phone number: 919-962-7739 Email Address: nicholes@email.unc.edu Faculty Advisor: Dr. Barbara Day Study Contact telephone number: 336-625-2748 Study Contact email: nicholes@email.unc.edu Faculty Advisor phone number: 910-962-7739 Faculty Advisor Email Address: bday1@email.unc.edu _________________________________________________________________ What are some general things you should know about research studies? You are being asked to allow your child to take part in a research study. To join the study is voluntary. You may refuse to give permission, or you may withdraw your permission for your child to be in the study, for any reason. Even if you give your permission, your child can decide not to be in the study or to leave the study early. Research studies are designed to obtain new knowledge. This new information may help people in the future. Your child may not receive any direct benefit from being in the research study. There also may be risks to being in research studies. Details about this study are discussed below. It is important that you understand this information so that you and your child can make an informed choice about being in this research study. You will be given a copy of this permission form. You and your child should ask the researchers named above, or staff members who may assist them, any questions you have about this study at any time. What is the purpose of this study? The purpose of this research study is to learn about the reading histories, habits, and attitudes of adolescents. I am interested in how much adolescents read during their free time, what they like to read, and where they get the things they read. 121

The reason for doing this research is to help teachers and librarians order materials and create programs that help adolescents be interested in reading in their free time. If I can learn more about adolescents’ reading histories, habits, and attitudes, I can help teachers and librarians. Your child is being asked to participate in this study because your child is a student in East Middle School. Administrators in your child’s school have given me permission to conduct my study, and your child’s teacher has agreed to allow up to 30 minutes of class time on one day to be used for this study. How many people will take part in this study? If your child is in this study, your child will be one of approximately 450 students in this school in this research study. How long will your child’s part in this study last? During this study, your child will be asked to complete a short survey (20-30 minutes) about how he or she spends his or her free time outside of school and his or her leisure reading habits. What will happen if your child takes part in the study? During this study, your child will be asked to complete a short survey about how he or she spends his or her free time outside of school and his or her leisure reading habits. Your child may choose not to answer any question on the survey for any reason. The survey will be completed in your child’s first period class at school and should take no more than 30 minutes. If your child is not in the study, your child would simply do silent reading instead. What are the possible benefits from being in this study? Research is designed to benefit society by gaining new knowledge. Your child may not benefit personally from being in this research study. What are the possible risks or discomforts involved from being in this study? There are no known risks involved with this study, however, the study will take time. The survey has been designed to minimize the amount of time it will take your child complete, so it will take only about 30 minutes. How will your child’s privacy be protected? To protect your child's privacy: 1. No identifying marks will be on your child’s survey. 2. Numbers will be placed on the surveys after they are turned in to assist in data analysis. 3. The survey completed by your child will be kept in a locked file cabinet in Mrs. Smith’s office. 4. The completed surveys will be stored in the primary investigator’s office in a locked cabinet for three years after completion of the study, and after that all documents will be shredded The name of the school or details concerning its location will not be included in any publications. 5. You child's first period teacher will not have access to any of the materials completed by your child. Will your child receive anything for being in this study? 122

Your child will not receive anything for taking part in this study. Will it cost you anything for your child to be in this study? There will be no costs for being in the study What if you or your child has questions about this study? You and your child have the right to ask, and have answered, any questions you may have about this research. If you have questions, or concerns, you should contact the researchers listed on the first page of this form. What if you or your child has questions about your child’s rights as a research participant? All research on human volunteers is reviewed by a committee that works to protect your child’s rights and welfare. If you or your child has questions or concerns about your child’s rights as a research subject you may contact, anonymously if you wish, the Institutional Review Board at 919-966-3113 or by email to IRB_subjects@unc.edu.

-------------------------------------------------------------Title of Study: A Study of Middle Grades Students’ Reading Histories, Habits, and Achievement. Principal Investigator: Nichole Smith Parent’s Agreement: I have read the information provided above. I have asked all the questions I have at this time. I voluntarily give permission to allow my child to participate in this research study. I also understand that my child also needs to sign the Assent form and turn in both this form and the Assent form together to my child’s 1st period teacher at school. Even though my child has signed the Assent form, my child may decide not to participate the day the survey is given. _________________________________________ Printed Name of Research Participant (Child) _________________________________________ Signature of Parent _________________________________________ Printed Name of Parent _________________ Date

123

Appendix D Recruitment Script Initial Study Information and Recruitment Script for Students
[to be presented by the teachers of the school who are willing to help, during their 1st period class]

Good morning. As a student in this school, you have been selected to participate in a research study conducted by a researcher at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. The researcher behind this study is particularly interested in how schools and libraries can do a better job of providing materials and programs that adolescents like. She thinks the best way to do this is to ask adolescents directly to find out what they think. She has asked me to tell you about her research study so you can see if you would like to participate. Right now, she is conducting a research study to find out how much adolescents read during their free time, what they like to read, and where they get the things they read. The study has one major part. In this study, you will be asked to complete a short survey about how you spend your free time outside of school and your leisure reading habits. This survey will also ask you a few questions about your reading history, and how you think your parents feel about reading. You may choose not to answer any question on the survey for any reason. The survey will be completed in your first period class and should take no more than 30 minutes. If you decide not to be in the study, you would simply do silent reading during the class instead. You do not have to like to read to participate. In fact, if you don't like to read, she is particularly interested in what you have to say. [Do you have any questions at this point about what you heard?] No one, not even your parents or teachers, will know what answers you put on the survey. Everything you answer on the survey will be confidential. You will not even put your name on the survey. After you turn in the survey a number will be placed on it to help with data analysis. As a researcher, she will write about the information on the surveys, but she will mostly be talking or writing about groups of students, like ‘more of the boys read this kind of magazine than did the girls.” But if she wants to share a specific comment or answer, she will say something like, “a 7th grade girl gave this response” or she will use a false name. [Any questions at this point?] Finally, if you're interested in participating in the study, you will need to give assent, which means that you agree to be in the study, and you will need the permission of one of your parents, because you are under the age of 18. The researcher has given me forms to give out to students who are interested. I will give you 2 copies of the PARENT PERMISSION form, to take home, and a total of 2 copies of the ASSENT FORM. If you want to be in the study, and your parent says it is ok, then you need to bring in ONE signed parent form, and ONE signed assent form. 124

You and your parent should keep the other copies. These forms and the survey will also be written in Spanish for students and parents who prefer to read them in Spanish. I want to go over the information on the ASSENT form with you today, so you know what kind of information is included. And even if you sign the assent form, you can change your mind the day of the survey. [Hand out assent form; read through each section]. The researcher’s name, phone number, and email address are on both forms so if you or your parents have any questions, please get in touch with her. So here are the next steps: 1. Think about what you’ve heard and read today. 2. Take the 2 parent permission forms and the 2 assent forms home. 3. Tell your parents about the study and go over the forms with them. 4. If your parent gives permission and you decide to participate in the study, bring the signed forms back to me, your first period teacher, by January 21st. Keep the other copies so you and your parent knows how to contact the researcher. The researcher really hopes you will agree to help with her study. She has done work like this with adolescents at the high school level and she has been amazed at what she has learned from them. They also had fun! Thank you for your attention today.

125

Appendix E Spanish Survey

Encuesta de Intereses y Actividades del Estudiante en Su Tiempo Libre Estamos interesados en saber como pasas el tiempo, especialmente tu tiempo libre y las actividades que disfrutas cuando no te encuentras trabajando o en la escuela. No hay respuestas “correctas” o “incorrectas”. Solo queremos saber acerca de tus intereses fuera del lugar del trabajo y la escuela. Intereses y Actividades del Estudiante 1. ¿Cuánto tiempo piensas que pasas envuelto en lo siguiente en un día típico? (Solo completa lo que te aplique a ti.) Escuela _____________ Tarea ______________ Quehaceres ___________ Trabajando en un empleo __________ Tiempo Libre _______________ Durmiendo _____________

2. ¿Cómo te gusta pasar tu tiempo libre? (Tacha todos los que apliquen.) o o o o o o o o o o o En el Internet Cocinando Artesanías Bailando Pasándola con mis amigos Escuchando música Escuchando pod casts Escuchando libros auditivos Pintando o dibujando Participando en clubs Jugando cartas o juegos de mesa (Monopoly, ajedrez, dama china, etc.) o Jugando juegos de video o computadora o Jugando deportes (baloncesto, béisbol, fútbol, fútbol americano, etc.) o Tocando música a solas o Tocando música con mis amigos o Leyendo (libros, revistas, periódicos, etc.) o Montando bicicleta o motoneta o Patinando o Corriendo o caminando o Yendo de compras o al mall o En patineta o Nadando o Charlando en el teléfono con amigos o Usando email, Mensajes Instantáneos, o mensajes textuales para hablar con amigos o Siendo un voluntario en la comunidad (servicio comunitario) o Mirando Televisión o videos o Escribiendo (diario, poesía, notas a amigos, blog, música, etc.)

o Otro: (por favor escríbelo) __________________________________________ 3. ¿De qué actividades o temas te sientes muy apasionado? (Tacha todos los que apliquen). o Deportes o Lectura o Internet 126 o Arte o Ir de Compras o Música

o o o o o o

Amigos/Familia Romance Religión Animales Teatro Televisión/Películas

o o o o o

Escuela Sirviendo como Voluntario Escribiendo Cuidando Niños Otro (por favor escríbelo) _______________________

4. ¿Algunas veces lees acerca de las cosas que te apasionan? o o o o 5. Frecuentemente A veces Rara vez Nunca

¿Que tan seguido lees? o o o o Frecuentemente A veces Rara vez Nunca

6. Cuando lees, ¿por que lees? (Tacha todos los que apliquen). o o o o o o o o Porque mis padres me animan a hacerlo Por diversión Porque mis amigos leen Porque me aburro y no tengo más que hacer Porque tengo que hacerlo para la escuela Para aprender cosas nuevas por mí mismo Porque mi maestro y bibliotecario me recomendaron ciertos materiales Realmente no leo mucho

7. ¿Disfrutas de la lectura? o o o o Frecuentemente A veces Rara vez Nunca

8. Si no lees mucho o no te gusta la lectura, ¿por que no? Por ejemplo, si no lees, ¿será porque no tienes tiempo, porque te aburre, etc.? (Tacha los que apliquen). o o o o o o Muy ocupado/no hay tiempo Aburrido/no divertido No me atraen las historias Los muchachos son más interesantes Las muchachas son más interesantes Tengo demasiado trabajo escolar 127 o La lectura me cansa o me da dolores de cabeza o Tengo dificultad concentrándome o No soy bueno para la lectura o Otro (por favor escríbelo) _______________________________

o o o o o o o

Prefiero escuchar música Prefiero jugar deportes Prefiero jugar video juegos Prefiero usar el Internet Prefiero ver televisión Prefiero pasar tiempo con mis amigos No puedo encontrar algo para leer que me interese o Los libros están muy largos o Mis amigos se burlan de mí

128

9. Si te gusta leer, ¿por que lees? Por ejemplo, si te gusta leer, ¿será porque es divertido, porque te apegas a los personajes en los libros, etc.? (Tacha todos los que apliquen). o o o o o o o o o o Para escaparme Para divertirme Es educativo/para aprender algo Para estimular mi cerebro Es relajante Para pasar el tiempo Para motivarme Me apego a los personajes de los cuales leo Es emocionante Otro (por favor escríbelo)_____________________________

10. Cuando lees, ¿que de lo siguiente lees? (Tacha todos los que apliquen). o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o Periódicos Libros de ficción Libros no ficción Modas/revistas de belleza Revistas cómicas Novelas Gráficas Revistas de deportes/autos/lucha libre Revistas de patinetas Revistas de video juegos Revistas de noticias como Time o Newsweek Revistas musicales Revistas de entretenimiento Revistas de rompecabezas Cosas en el Internet Manuales de computadoras La escritura que se ve en los paquetes Revistas de ciencias Todo lo de arriba

11. ¿De cuál de los siguientes personajes/personas te gusta leer? (Tacha los que apliquen). o Personas/personajes como yo o Personas/personajes que son muy diferentes que yo o Personajes de fantasía — como héroes, personas de otros mundos, o del futuro o Personas/personajes de mi edad que estén batallando con asuntos difíciles, como el abuso de drogas o el crimen o Personas de mi edad que han hecho cosas estupendas o extraordinarias 129

o o o o o o

Celebridades Animales Músicos Figuras deportivas Figuras históricas Otro (por favor escríbelo) ________________________

12. Además de leer para asignaciones escolares, ¿cuando haces la mayoría de tu lectura? o o o o o o o En la noche Después de la escuela Durante el verano o cuando estoy de vacaciones En los fines de semana En el autobús Cuando estoy enfermo En las mañanas

Historial de Lectura y Antecedentes del Estudiante 13. ¿Quien en tu vida te anima a leer? (Tacha todos los que apliquen). o o o o o o o o Mis amigos Mis padres Mi hermano o hermana Mi maestro El bibliotecario de la escuela El bibliotecario de la biblioteca pública Nadie Otro (por favor escríbelo) __________________________

14. Cuando lees, ¿de dónde tomas tus materiales? (Tacha todos los que apliquen). o o o o o o o De la biblioteca pública De la biblioteca escolar De mi salón de clases De una librería De mis amigos De mis padres Otro (por favor escríbelo) ______________________________

15. Si tuvieras más tiempo, ¿que tan seguido leerías? o Frecuentemente o A veces 130

o Rara vez o Nunca 16. ¿Que material era tu favorito leer cuando estabas en primaria? (Escoge uno solamente) o Libros ficción o Libros no ficción o Biografías o Libros de chistes o Poesía o Novelas Gráficas o Libros cómicos o Revistas o Periódicos o El Internet 17. ¿Que material es tu favorito para leer en secundaria? (Escoge uno solamente) o o o o o o o o o o Libros ficción Libros no ficción Biografías Libros de chistes Poesía Novelas Gráficas Libros cómicos Revistas Periódicos El Internet

18. ¿Que tan seguido compras libros? o o o o Frecuentemente A veces Rara vez Nunca

19. ¿Que tan seguido compras revistas? o o o o Frecuentemente A veces Rara vez Nunca

20. ¿Cuantos libros tiene tu familia en casa? o Más de 50 131

o 25-50 o 10-25 o 10 o menos 21. ¿Cuantas subscripciones de revistas tiene tu familia? o Más de 5 o 3-5 o 1-2 o 0 22. ¿Tiene tu familia una subscripción de periódico? o Sí o No 23. ¿Que tan seguido te leían tus padres cuando eras niño? o o o o Frecuentemente A veces Rara vez Nunca

24. Ahora, ¿que tan seguido lee tu familia junta? o o o o 25. Frecuentemente A veces Rara vez Nunca

¿Piensan tus padres que eres un buen lector? o Sí o A lo mejor o No estoy seguro o No

25. ¿Te animan tus padres a leer en tu tiempo libre? o o o o Frecuentemente A veces Rara vez Nunca

26. ¿Que tan seguido visitabas la biblioteca con tus padres cuando eras niño? o Frecuentemente o A veces o Rara vez 132

o Nunca 27. ¿Que tan seguido visitas la biblioteca con tus padres ahora? o o o o Frecuentemente A veces Rara vez Nunca

28. ¿Que tan seguido te compran libros tus padres? o o o o Frecuentemente A veces Rara vez Nunca

29. ¿Que tan seguido lee tu madre? o Frecuentemente o A veces o Rara vez o Nunca 30. ¿Que tan seguido lee tu padre? o Frecuentemente o A veces o Rara vez o Nunca 31. Cuando lee tu madre, ¿que lee? o Libros o Revistas o Periódicos o El Internet 32. Cuando lee tu padre, ¿que lee? o Libros o Revistas o Periódicos o El Internet 33. ¿Cuál es el nivel académico de tu madre? o o o o No se graduó de secundaria o bachillerato Graduada de secundaria o bachillerato Un poco de universidad o colegio Graduada de universidad o colegio 133

34. ¿Cuál es el nivel académico de tu madre? o o o o No se graduó de secundaria o bachillerato Graduado de secundaria o bachillerato Un poco de universidad o colegio Graduado de universidad o colegio

Información General del Estudiante 35. Describe los grados que recibes la mayoría del tiempo. o o o o Mayoría A y B Mayoría B y C Mayoría C y D Mayoría D o menor

36. ¿Cuál es tu raza u origen étnico? o o o o Blanco Negro Latino/Hispano Otro

37. ¿Cuál es tu género? o Masculino o Femenino 38. ¿Naciste en los Estados Unidos de América? o Sí o No

134

Appendix F Spanish Assent Form

University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill Consentimiento para Participar en un Estudio de Investigación Sujetos Menores de Edad (7-14 años) ________________________________________________________________________ Nº de Estudio del IRB __________________ Fecha de la Versión del Formulario de Consentimiento: 12/7/08 Título del Estudio: Un Estudio del Historial de Lectura, Hábitos, y Logros de los Estudiantes de Secundaria Persona encargada del estudio: Nichole Smith Dónde trabajan en la UNC-Chapel Hill: Estudiante Graduado en el Programa Ed.D. de Currículo e Instrucción Otras personas que trabajan en el estudio: Dr. Barbara Day, Asesora de la Facultad Número telefónico del Contacto del Estudio: 336-625-2748 Correo electrónico del Contacto del Estudio: nicholes@email.unc.edu Número telefónico del Contacto Asesora de la Facultad: 910-962-7739 Correo electrónico del Contacto del Asesora de la Facultad: bday1@email.unc.edu ________________________________________________________________ Las personas mencionadas arriba están realizando un estudio de investigación. Estas son algunas cosas que queremos que sepa acerca de los estudios de investigación: Su padre necesita dar permiso para que usted participe en este estudio. No tiene que participar en este estudio si no desea, aún si su padre haya dado permiso. Puede finalizar su participación en el estudio en cualquier momento. Si decide finalizar su participación, nadie se enojará o estará molesto con usted. A veces cosas buenas les suceden a personas que participan en estudios, y a veces ocurren cosas que no nos gustan. Abajo le contaremos más sobre estas cosas. ¿Por qué están haciendo este estudio de investigación? El propósito de este estudio de investigación es para aprender acerca del historial de lectura, hábitos, y actitudes de los adolescentes. Estoy interesada en ver cuánto tiempo leen los adolescentes en su tiempo libre, que les gusta leer, y de donde toman las cosas que leen.

135

El motivo por hacer esta investigación es para ayudar a maestros y bibliotecarios a ordenar materiales y crear programas que ayuden a los adolescentes a interesarse en leer en su tiempo libre. ¿Por qué se le solicita participar en este estudio de investigación? Se le ha pedido a usted que participe en este estudio porque es un estudiante de secundaria (middle school), y estoy interesada en aprender acerca de su historial de lectura, hábitos, y actitudes. Todos los estudiantes en su escuela están invitados a participar. Su maestro está dispuesto a dejar que usted tome 30 minutos del primer periodo de clases en un día específico para este estudio. ¿Cuántas personas participarán en este estudio? Si decide participar en este estudio, será uno de entre aproximadamente 450 personas en este estudio de investigación. ¿Qué ocurrirá durante este estudio? Durante este estudio, se le pedirá que complete una pequeña encuesta acerca de cómo pasa su tiempo libre fuera de la escuela y acerca de sus hábitos de lectura durante ese tiempo libre. Usted puede escoger no responder a ninguna pregunta en la encuesta por cualquier razón. La encuesta será completada durante el primer periodo de clases en la Escuela East Middle, y tomará no más de 30 minutos. Usted NO escribirá su nombre en la encuesta. Si no es parte del estudio, usted simplemente leerá en silencio en vez de tomar la encuesta. ¿A quién se le informará lo que conocemos de usted en este estudio?

La información coleccionada por medio de este estudio será compartida con maestros, padres, y bibliotecarios. Examinaré las respuestas de todos los estudiantes que estén en el estudio para aprender que es lo que dicen los estudiantes en conjunto.
¿Qué son las cosas buenas que pueden ocurrir? Puede que le ocurran cosas buenas a las personas por participar en estudios de investigación. Estos se llaman “beneficios”. Puede que usted no se beneficie de ser parte de este estudio, pero sí ayudará a otros en el futuro, y puede que sea interesante para usted el completar la encuesta. ¿Qué son las cosas malas que pueden ocurrir? No hay riesgos conocidos envueltos con este estudio, sin embargo, el estudio sí tomará parte de su tiempo. La encuesta ha sido diseñada para minimizar la cantidad de tiempo que le tomará para completarla; tomará aproximadamente 30 minutos. Deberá reportar cualquier problema al investigador. ¿Qué tal si usted o sus padres no desean que participe en este estudio? Para proteger su privacidad, yo seré la única persona que tendrá acceso a las encuestas. Para ayudar con la entrada de datos, solamente escribiremos un número en la encuesta.

136

No se escribirán nombres en las encuestas. Las encuestas terminadas se guardarán bajo llave en la oficina de la Sra. Smith. Su maestro del primer periodo de clases y los estudiantes en su clase muy probablemente sabrán que usted estará participando en la encuesta; sin embargo, ellos no sabrán lo que usted escribirá en la encuesta porque ellos no verán sus respuestas. Yo soy el único adulto que tendrá acceso a esta información. Al final del estudio, todas las encuestas y notas que haya escrito acerca de sus respuestas serán destruidas. Los participantes no serán identificados en ningún reporte o publicación. ¿Recibirá dinero o regalos por su participación en este estudio de investigación? Usted no recibirá dinero ni regalos por participar en este estudio. ¿A quién le debe preguntar si tiene preguntas? Si tiene alguna pregunta deberá ponerse en contacto conmigo, Nichole Smith, la persona mencionada en la primera página de este formulario. Si tiene otras preguntas acerca de sus derechos al participar en este estudio de investigación, usted o su padre puede ponerse en contacto con el Institutional Review Board (Comité de Revisión Institucional, IRB por sus siglas en inglés) al 919-966-3113 o por correo electrónico a IRB_subjects@unc.edu. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Título del Estudio: Un Estudio del Historial de Lectura, Hábitos, y Logros de los Estudiantes de Secundaria Investigador Principal: Mrs. Nichole Smith Si firma su nombre abajo, significa que acepta participar en este estudio de investigación.

__________________________________________ Firme aquí si quiere participar en el estudio __________________________________________ Nombre en imprenta si quiere participar en el estudio

_______________ Fecha

137

Appendix G Spanish Parental Permission Form University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill Autorización de los padres para que un niño menor de edad participe en un estudio de investigación Formulario de conducta social ________________________________________________________________________ Nº de estudio del IRB __________________ Fecha de la versión del formulario de consentimiento: 12/7/08 Título del estudio: Un Estudio del Historial de Lectura, Hábitos, y Logros de los Estudiantes de Secundaria Investigador principal: Nichole Smith Departamento de la UNC-Chapel Hill: Currículo e Instrucción Número telefónico de la UNC-Chapel Hill: 919-962-7739 Dirección de correo electrónico: nicholes@email.unc.edu Asesora de la Facultad: Dr. Barbara Day Número telefónico del contacto del estudio: 336-625-2748 Correo electrónico del contacto del estudio: nicholes@email.unc.edu Número telefónico del Contacto Asesora de la Facultad: 910-962-7739 Correo electrónico del Contacto del Asesora de la Facultad: bday1@email.unc.edu _________________________________________________________________ ¿Cuáles son algunas de las cuestiones generales que usted debe saber sobre los estudios de investigación? Se le pide que permita participar a su hijo en un estudio de investigación. La participación en este estudio es voluntaria. Puede negarse a dar su autorización, o puede retirar su autorización para que su hijo participe en el estudio, por cualquier motivo. Incluso si usted otorga su autorización, su hijo puede decidir no participar en el estudio o abandonarlo de manera anticipada. Los estudios de investigación tienen como objetivo obtener información nueva. Es posible que esta información nueva ayude a las personas en el futuro. Es posible que su hijo no reciba ningún beneficio directo por participar en este estudio de investigación. También pueden existir riesgos asociados con la participación en estudios de investigación. Los detalles sobre este estudio se analizan a continuación. Es importante que entienda esta información para que usted y su hijo puedan tomar la decisión adecuada en cuanto ha participar en este estudio de investigación. 138

Se le entregará una copia de este formulario de autorización. Usted y su hijo deben preguntar a los investigadores mencionados anteriormente, o a los miembros del personal que los asisten, cualquier pregunta que tengan acerca de este estudio en cualquier momento. ¿Cuál es el objetivo de este estudio? El propósito de este estudio de investigación es para aprender acerca del historial de lectura, hábitos, y actitudes de los adolescentes. Estoy interesada en ver cuánto tiempo leen los adolescentes en su tiempo libre, que les gusta leer, y de donde toman las cosas que leen. El motivo por hacer esta investigación es para ayudar a maestros y bibliotecarios a ordenar materiales y crear programas que ayuden a los adolescentes a interesarse en leer en su tiempo libre. Si puedo aprender más acerca del historial de lectura, hábitos, y actitudes de los adolescentes, puedo ayudar a los maestros y bibliotecarios. Se le pide a su hijo que participe en este estudio porque es un estudiante de la Escuela East Middle. Los administradores de la escuela de su hijo me han dado permiso para conducir mi estudio, y el maestro de su hijo está dispuesto a dejar que los estudiantes tomen 30 minutos del primer periodo de clases en un día específico para este estudio. ¿Cuántas personas participarán en este estudio? Si su hijo participa en este estudio, será uno de entre aproximadamente 450 estudiantes en esta escuela que participarán en este estudio de investigación. ¿Cuánto tiempo participará su hijo en este estudio? Durante el estudio, a su hijo se le pedirá que complete una encuesta pequeña (20-30 minutos) acerca de cómo pasa su tiempo libre fuera de la escuela y acerca de sus hábitos de lectura durante ese tiempo libre. ¿Qué ocurrirá si su hijo participa en el estudio? Durante el estudio, a su hijo se le pedirá que complete una encuesta pequeña acerca de cómo pasa su tiempo libre fuera de la escuela y acerca de sus hábitos de lectura durante ese tiempo libre. Su hijo puede escoger no responder a ninguna pregunta en la encuesta por cualquier razón. La encuesta será completada durante su primer periodo de clases y tomará no más de 30 minutos. Si su hijo no es parte del estudio, el simplemente leerá en silencio en vez de tomar la encuesta. ¿Cuáles son los posibles beneficios por participar en este estudio? La investigación está diseñada para beneficiar a la sociedad mediante la obtención de nuevos conocimientos. Es posible que su hijo no se beneficie personalmente por su participación en este estudio de investigación. ¿Cuáles son los posibles riesgos o molestias que implica la participación en este estudio? 139

No hay riesgos conocidos envueltos con este estudio, sin embargo, el estudio sí tomará parte de su tiempo. La encuesta ha sido diseñada para minimizar la cantidad de tiempo que le tomará a su hijo para completarla; tomará aproximadamente 30 minutos. ¿Cómo se protegerá la privacidad de su hijo? Para proteger la privacidad de su hijo: 1. No habrá marcas identificadoras en la encuesta de su hijo. 2. Se escribirán números en las encuestas después de ser entregadas para ayudar con la entrada de datos. 3. La encuesta terminada por su hijo se guardará bajo llave en un archivero en la oficina de la Sra. Smith. 4. Las encuestas terminadas se guardarán bajo llave en un archivero en la oficina del investigador principal por tres años después de que termine el estudio, y después de eso todos los documentos serán destruidos. El nombre de la escuela o detalles concernientes a su localidad no serán incluidos en ninguna publicación. 5. El maestro del primer periodo de clases de su hijo no tendrá acceso a ninguno de los materiales completados por él.

¿Recibirá algo su hijo por participar en este estudio? Su hijo no recibirá nada por participar en este estudio. ¿Le costará algo para que su hijo participe en este estudio? No existirá ningún costo por participar en este estudio. ¿Qué tal si usted o su hijo tienen preguntas sobre este estudio? Usted y su hijo tienen el derecho de preguntar, y que le respondan, cualquier duda que tengan acerca de esta investigación. Si tienen preguntas o inquietudes, deben ponerse en contacto con los investigadores mencionados en la primera página de este formulario. ¿Qué tal si usted o su hijo tienen preguntas sobre los derechos de su hijo como participante de una investigación? Toda investigación realizada con voluntarios humanos es examinada por un comité que trabaja para proteger los derechos y el bienestar de su hijo. Si usted o su hijo tienen preguntas o inquietudes acerca de los derechos de su hijo como sujeto de una investigación, pueden ponerse en contacto, de manera anónima si lo desean, con el Institutional Review Board (Comité de revisión institucional, IRB por sus siglas en inglés) al 919-966-3113 o por correo electrónico a IRB_subjects@unc.edu. -------------------------------------------------------------Título del Estudio: Un Estudio del Historial de Lectura, Hábitos, y Logros de los Estudiantes de Secundaria Investigador Principal: Mrs. Nichole Smith

140

Acuerdo de los padres: He leído la información proporcionada arriba. He realizado todas las preguntas que tengo en este momento. Otorgo mi autorización voluntariamente para permitir que mi hijo participe en este estudio de investigación. También entiendo que mi hijo debe firmar su propia forma de consentimiento y debemos entregar las dos formas, esta y la forma de consentimiento del estudiante, a su maestro del primero periodo de clases en la escuela. A pesar de que mi hijo haya firmado su forma de consentimiento, el puede decidir no participar en la encuesta en el día que sea dada.

_________________________________________ Nombre en imprenta del participante de la investigación (niño) _________________________________________ Firma del padre o de la madre _________________________________________ Nombre en imprenta del padre o de la madre _________________ Fecha

141

References Abeyrantha, P.H.A.S., and Zainab, A.N. (2004). The status of reading habit and interests among secondary school children in Sri Lanka. Malaysian Journal of Library and Information Science, 9(2), 107-121. Alber-Morgan, S.R., Ramp, E.M., Anderson, L.L., and Martin, C.M. (2007). Effects of repeated readings, error correction, and performance feedback on the fluency and comprehension of middle school students with behavior problems. The Journal of Special Education, 41(1), 17-30. Ash, G.E. (2005). What did Abigail mean? Educational Leadership, 63(2), 36-41. Bailey, L.B. (2006). Explaining gifted students who are economically at-risk to determine factors that influence their early reading success. Early Childhood Education Journal, 307-315. Britto, P.R., and Brooks-Gunn, J. (2001). Editors’ notes, In Pia Rebello Britto and Jeanne Brooks-Gunn (Eds.), The Role of Family Literacy Environments in Promoting Young Children’s Emerging Literacy Skills (pp. 1-6). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Camp, D. (2007). Who’s reading and why: Reading habits of first through graduate students. Reading Horizons Journal, 47(3), 251-68. Caspe, M. (2003). Family literacy: A review of programs and critical perspectives. Harvard Family Research Project. Retrieved September 6, 2008, from http://www.hfrp.org/publications-resources/browse-our-publications/familyliteracy-a-review-of-programs-and-critical-perspectives. Chen, S. (2007). Extracurricular reading habits of college students in Taiwan: Findings from two national surveys. Journal of Adolescent and Adult Literacy, 50(8), 642653. Chen, S.U. (2008). Who is the avid adolescent reader in Taiwan? The role of gender, family, and teacher. Journal of Adolescent and Adult Literacy, 52(3), 214-223. Compton-Lily, C. (2003). Reading families: The literate lives of urban children. New York: Teachers College Press. Coutant, C., and Perchemlides, N. (2005). Strategies for teen readers. Educational Leadership, 63(2), 42-47.

142

Crain-Thoreson, C., Dahlin, M.P., and Powell, T.A. (2001). Parent-child interaction in three conversational contexts: Variation in style and strategy. In Pia Rebello Britto and Jeanne Brooks-Gunn (Eds.), The Role of Family Literacy Environments in Promoting Young Children’s Emerging Literacy Skills (pp. 7-22). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Creel, S.L. (2007). Early adolescents’ reading habits. Literature Surveys and Research, 5(4), 46-49. Cummins, J. (2001/1986). Empowering minority students: A framework for intervention. Harvard Educational Review, 71(4): 649-655 and 56(1): 656-675. Darwin, M., and Fleischman, S. (2005). Fostering adolescent literacy. Educational Leadership, 62 (7), 85-87. DeBruin-Parecki, A., and Krol-Sinclair, B. (Eds). (2003). Family literacy: From theory to practice. Newark, DE: International Reading Association. Doiron, R. (2003). Boy books, girl books: Should we reorganize our school library collections? Teacher Librarians, 30(3). 14-16. Flake, S.G. (2008). Who says black boys won’t read? Journal of Children’s Literature, 34(1). 13-14. Garson, G.D. (2008). “Measures of Association”, from Statnotes: Topics in Multivariate Analysis. Retrieved July 28, 2009, from http://faculty.chass.ncsu.edu/garson/PA765/association.htm. Garson, G.D. (2009). “Sampling”, from Statnotes: Topics in Multivariate Analysis. Retrieved July 28, 2009, from http://faculty.chass.ncsu.edu/garson/PA765/sampling.htm. Garson, G.D. (2009). “Significance”, from Statnotes: Topics in Multivariate Analysis. Retrieved July 28, 2009, from http://faculty.chass.ncsu.edu/garson/PA765/signif.htm. Garson, G.D. (2008). “Student's t-Test of Difference of Means”, from Statnotes: Topics in Multivariate Analysis. Retrieved July 28, 2009, from http://faculty.chass.ncsu.edu/garson/PA765/ttest.htm. Garson, G.D. (2008). “Survey Research”, from Statnotes: Topics in Multivariate Analysis. Retrieved July 28, 2009, from http://faculty.chass.ncsu.edu/garson/PA765/survey.htm.

143

Garson, G.D. (2009). “Univariate GLM, ANOVA, and ANCOVA”, from Statnotes: Topics in Multivariate Analysis. Retrieved July 28, 2009, from http://faculty.chass.ncsu.edu/garson/PA765/anova.htm. Haupt, A. (2003). Where the boys are… Teacher Librarian, 30(3), 19-24. Holloway, J.H. (1999). Improving the reading skills of adolescents. Educational Leadership, 57(2), 80-81. Hughes-Hassell, S. and Lutz, C. (2006). What do you want to tell us about reading? A survey of the habits and attitudes of urban middle school students toward leisure reading. Young Adult Library Services, 39-45. Hughes-Hassell, S. and Rodge, P. (2007). The leisure reading habits of urban adolescents. Journal of Adolescent and Adult Literacy, 51(1), 22-33. Jacobs, V.A. (2008). Adolescent literacy: Putting the crisis in context. Harvard Educational Review, 78(1), 7-39. Johnson, S.C. (1999). The role of the black church in family literacy. New York: Peter Lang. Kim, J. (2004). Summer reading and the ethnic achievement gap. Journal of Education for Students Placed at Risk, 9(2), 169-188). McKool, S.S. (2007). Factors that influence the decision to read: An investigation of fifth grade students’ out-of-school reading habits. Reading Improvement, 44(3), 111-131. Moje, E.B., Overby, M., Tysvaer, N, and Morris, K. (2008). The complex world of adolescent literacy: Myths, motivations, and mysteries. Harvard Educational Review, 78(1), 107-154. Montgomery County Chamber of Commerce. (2009). Montgomery County…A Golden Opportunity. Retrieved September 2, 2009, from http://montgomery-county.com/index.htm. Morgan, P.L., Farkas, G., and Hibel, J. (2008). Matthew effects for whom. Learning Disability Quarterly, 31(4), 187-198. National Endowment for the Arts. (2004). Reading at risk: A survey of literary reading in America (Research Division Report #46). Washington, D.C.: National Endowment for the Arts.

144

Nippold, M.A., Duthie, J.K., and Larsen, J. (2005). Literacy as a leisure activity: Freetime preferences of older children and young adolescents. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 36, 93-102. North Carolina Department of Public Instruction (2008). NC School Report Cards: East Middle. Retrieved September 1, 2009 from http://www.ncreportcards.org/src/servlet/srcICreatePDF?pSchCode=314&pLEAC ode=620&pYear=2007-2008. Papen, U. (2005). Adult literacy as a social practice: More than skills. London: Routledge. Phillips, L.M., Hayden, R., and Norris, S.P. (2006). Family literacy matters: A longitudinal parent-child literacy intervention study. Calgary, Alberta, Canada: Detselig. Rizopoulos, L.A., and Wolpert, G. (2004). An overview of the techniques used to develop the literacy skills of adolescents with developmental delays. Education, 125(1), 130-136. Rong, X.L. (2005). The history of immigration and immigrants, and the impacts on education. Unpublished manuscript. Rong, X.L., and Brown, F. (2001). The effects of immigrant generation and ethnicity on educational attainment among young African and Caribbean blacks in the United States. Harvard Educational Review, 71(3), 536-565. Rong, X.L., and Preissle, J. (1998). Education immigrant students: What we need to know the meet the challenges. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. Ross, C. (2000). Finding without seeking: What readers say about the role of pleasure reading as a source of information. Australasian Public Libraries and Information Service, 13(2), 72-80. Scieszka, J. (2003). Guys and reading. Teacher Librarian, 30(3). 17-18. SmartGirl.com teen read week survey (A partnership of SmartGirls and The American Library Association): Summary of major findings. Retrieved December 19, 2001, from http://www.smartgirl.com/pages/speak/trwsummary.html. Scholastic and Yankelovich. (2008). 2008 Kids & family reading report: Reading in the 21st century: Turning the page with technology. Retrieved August 6, 2008, from the Scholastic Website: http://www.scholastic.com/readingreport.

145

Senechal, M., and Lefevre, J.A. (2001). Storybook reading and parent teaching: links to language and literacy development, In Pia Rebello Britto and Jeanne BrooksGunn (Eds.), The Role of Family Literacy Environments in Promoting Young Children’s Emerging Literacy Skills (pp. 39-52). San Francisco, CA: JosseyBass. Storch, S.A., and Whitehurst, G.J. (2001). The role of family and home in the literacy development of children from low-income backgrounds, In Pia Rebello Britto and Jeanne Brooks-Gunn (Eds.), The Role of Family Literacy Environments in Promoting Young Children’s Emerging Literacy Skills (pp. 53-72). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Strommen, L.T., and Mates, B.F. (2004). Learning to love reading: Interviews with older children and teens. Journal of Adolescent and Adult Literacy 48(3), 188-200. Sullivan, M. (2004). Why Johnny won’t read. School Library Journal, 50(8). 36-39. Tatum, A.W. (2008). Toward a more anatomically complete model of literacy instruction: A focus on African American male adolescents and text. Harvard Educational Review, 78(1), 155-180. Temple, C., and MaKinster, J. (2005). Intervening for literacy: The joy of reading to young children. Boston: Pearson. U.S. Census Bureau (2009). State and County Quick Facts: Montgomery County North Carolina. Retrieved September 2, 2009, from http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/37/37123.html. Vacca, R.T. (1998). Let’s not marginalize adolescent literacy. Journal of Adolescent and Adult Literacy, 41(8), 604-610. Wicks J. (1995). Patterns of reading among teenage boys: The reading habits and book preferences of 13-15 year old boys. New Library World, 96(5), 10-16.

146