Visuals
GRAPHS, ABOUT WRITING AN TABLES D DIAGRAMS

Gabi Duigu

@ Gabi Duigu 2001 All rights reserved Published by Academic English Press 9/13 Armstrong Street Cammeray NS\f 2062 Australia

Ph:02 94376330 email:g.duigu@unsw.edu.au Distributedby: Melting Pot Press 10 GraftonStreet NS\( 2008 Chippendale Australia Ph: (5r) 29212 1882 F a x : 0 2 2 1 11 8 6 8 9 email:books@elt.com.au

r s B N0 - 9 5 7 8 9 9 6 - 0 - 2

. : : l i : : : i ; ; : : . .: : l : : . .: : . : : : : : : l :
:!':::::::::::::::::|' : :: ::::!' ::-:::::::::::::::::

l:l:::l::::::l.l.l| : :ltl lf::::r:::a:a:t:t::.t: : ||

.:.......:.......:........... ...

Part1
t. The Purpose GraphsandTables of .. .. .. .2

Part 2
2. \WritingaboutGraphsandThbles 2 . 1 \ W r i t i n g t hI e t r o d u c t i o n n 2.2 TimeExpressions 2.3 Expressions Measurement of ......9 ......10 .......13 . . . .15

Part3
3. \TritingtheReport 3.1 Contrast.... 3.2 Tiends 3.3 Correlations ......25 ...,.25 ......32 ......35

Part4
4. Using the Right sryle . 4.1 Modifiers 4.2 Using the CorrectSryleand Avoiding Errors . . . .39 ...39 . . .48

Part5
5. Diagrams 5.1 VocabularyandGrammar 5 . 2 U s i n g a g o o d s r y.l e AnswerK"y.. ...55 ......55 ......56 ...59

\With thanks to Maryanne Sheafor making the book possible,and for her enduring patience and encouragement.

Many of the graphs and tables in this book are basedon visualsfrom various issuesof the UNESCO Courier, to which very worthwhile publication grateful acknowledgment is made.

i:.: :li:i.,:ii !::ii'.t.iilil j::::aii,::::.::::itiii.J :::::::l

:ltir,,:::::t:t:,,1::::::::::::::::t:t:

:r::i:r;iil;:,:iti;;lir,:i t:ri;':f: t::ttt:l;:ti;ittiit

lntroductionand Overview
There are Many books exist that are guides to academicwriting for native speakers. Of also a number for non-native speakers. these,quite a few deal with the use of graphs, tablesand other visuals.However, they normally explain how to insert or use thesevisuals to make your work more interesting and easyto understand.They do not usually explain how to write about thesevisual aids. The primary purpose of this book is to help you with the \Writing Thsk I of the it IELIS Academic test. Howevet because attempts to deal with the language way, you may find that much of the information it contains required in a systematic could be useful to you later during your studies,if you ever need to use graphs, tablesor the like in your work. So perhapsyou should not give the book away as soon as you have passedyour IELIS.
)i()K)K)t()K

'Writing Thsk 1, it is In order to write about visuals,as required in IELIS Academic necessary understand what to write, as well as ltotl to write it. The first section of to this book therefore beginswith a discussionabout the main purpose and featuresof to graphs, tablesand other visuals,and provides exercises practiseidenti$'ing these correctly. The later sections then go on to deal with the languagerequired to write about them. There are vocabulary lists, explanationsabout meaning and grammar, and There is also an Answer Key, and model answersare provided, so that the exercises. book can be used for self-studyas well as class-roomuse.

2

Writing Tables and Diagrams Visuals: about Graphs,

Since most of the IELTS Academic \Writing Thsk 1 questions deal with graphs and rables,and since they require specific interpretation and writing conyentions,we will first focus on these.

A Note on terminology: The IELIS Handbook mentions diagrams and tables. Clearly this includes graphs (the most common visual used in \Writing Task 1) under diagrams. Other books talk about visuals to cover all of these.Youdo not need to worry about this as the label is usually given in the introduction to the task and you can simply use the sameword in your answer.

of 1. ThePurpose Graphsand Tables to In order to know how to do something properly, it is necessary understand the parpose of that thing. tWe actually need to know two things: a) the purpose of using graphs and tables;and b) the purpose of utriting about the graphs and tables that have been used. \Wewill deal with the first one first.

1.1Using Graphs and Tables
1 TASK
'Which of the following statements do you think best describe the purpose of providing graphs and tables in an academic text? a) to explain what is in the t€xt in a different way b) to provide information which is additional to that provided in the text c) to make it easierto understand the conceptsby using a visual rather than by just using words d) to give an overview or an impression or a summary e) to provide more exact details than is desirablein the text rc Answer Key

Visuals: Writing Tables about Graphs, and Diagrams

3

1.2 Writingabout Graphsand Tables
In real life, the text usually comesfrst, and the graph or table is added to support the text. In fact, most books that adviseon writing, explain how to use graphs or tables to illustrate the words more cleady. However, in IELTS the reverseoccurs you are given the graph, table or diagram and must supply the words. In Thsk 1 candidatesare askedto look at a diagram or table, and to present the information in their own words. Depending on the type of input and the task on suggested, candidatesare assessed their abiliry to: r organise, present and possibly compare data .describe the stagesofa processor procedure .describe an object or event or sequenceofevents . explain how something works IELTS Handbooh, 1999

Note that the first of theseis the most common task found in the Test, and the one we are dealine with now

TASK 2.
\(zhich of the following do you think best describes the purpose of writing about graphs and tables (in real academic writing)? a) to explain what is in the graph or table in a different way which makes it easierto understand b) to give exactly the same information in words, in order to emphasiseit c) to expand on what is in the graph or table by giving additional explanations about the reasonsetc. of d) to draw attention to the most important asp€cts the information shown in the graph or table. tc Ansuter Ke!

Tables and Diagrams Writing about Graphs, Visuals:

the 1.3 Understanding Purpose
TASK3.
Look at the following graph and the descriptions given underneath, and decide which one is the most suitable. Try to explain why you think so.

Growth Rates Annual Urban Average ltsto-ts
T--l 1995-2000 ffiil 2020-2025

Asia

Europe

North Latin America America

annualurban groluth rate of 5 continentsfrom 1970 a) This gdph showsthe auerage annual urban groutth to 2025. According to the graph, Africa had about 5o/oauerage annual urban grozuthrate in 1995 and in 2025 rate in 1970 and ouer 4%oauerage to annual urban grou.tthrate is expected bejust ouer3o/o.For Asia the the auerage annual urban groutth rate wasjust ouer3o/o in 1970 and 1995 and it utas auerage annual urban to expected be about 2o/oin 2025. In Europe, by contrast,tlte auerage groutth rat€ was only about 1.5% in 1970 and it went down to about 0.5o/oin annual 1995, and in 2025 it utill be lessthan 0.2o/o.In Latin America tlte auerage urban groutth rate utentfrom just under 4o/oin 1970 to just ouer2%oin 1995 and it annual urban tuill probably bejust ouer 1o/oin 2025. In North America the auerage groluth rAte uAs about 1o/oin 1970 and 1995 and is ffiPectedto stay tlte samein 2025. b) Looking at the graph lae cdn seethat urban {ouath has happenedon all 5 to continentssince 1970 and that it is expected continue right up to 2025. The most tbesecontinentshaue dramatic grouth is in Africa, Asia and Latin America, becAuse and industrialisation since 1970, while Europe and the experienced most deuelopment they already started being more probably because North America show lessincrease are urbanised. In deuelopingcountriesmary)peoplefom the countrytside attrdcted t0 the cities to loohfor u,,orhand better opportunities in heahh and education, but this rapid urbanisation is causingmany problems and needsto be connolled.

Visuals:Writing about Graphs, Tablesand Diagrams

urban grotuth in all 5 that since 1970 there has beenconsiderable ) The graph shou,,s to continentspresented and that this trend is expected continue at least until2025. Houteuer,the ratefor eaclt continent ltas not beentlte same. The deuelopingcounnies of Afica, Asia and Latin America experiencedtlte most dramatic growth rates in 1975, with Afica hauing around 5o/oPer Annum, Latin America just ouer 4%oand Asia ouer3o/o. In 1995 theseratesdeneasedto just ouer 4o/oin Afica and doun to about 2o/o for Latin Anterica, but Asia remained tlte same. This grouth rate is by expected decrease about 1% for all three continentsbjt the year 2025. to p.a. ouer the to Mennuthile North America is expected maintain its groutth rate of 1o/o entire period, tahile Europe, hauing started theperiod at about 1.5o/ogrowth rate is to expected reducethis to only about 2% by 2025. a Ansuer Ke!

and Tables typesof Graphs different 1.4 Understanding
\7e now need to look more closelyat what graphs and tablesshow, and the differencesberween them. a) 'What features do the following graphs have in common?
1950 World MeatProduction, - 90
Million Tons

in Consumption China Cigarette billions: 2000 t Pork

1500 40 30 20 't0 0

-ta .---'-+/ R
..,.8' F-.:::--.ts_+ .A'

,.a(
1980

a Beef/Buffalo u Poultry

/

1950

1960

1970

1990

b) Vhat features do the following graphs have in common? How are they different from the previous ones?
Percentage distributionof Internet-connected of July by of computers, income countlies, 1999

Waste1999 Household
Paper & 21% Carboard Food& Garden Materials 46%

High-income countries 95.1 =Plastic 8% Middleincome counldies4.7 / Low-incomecounti reso.z Metal 6%

Glass 8%
Other'l l%

Tables and Diagrams Writing about Graphs, Visuals:

c)

'What

about these graphs?

Percentaqe of all children 5 - 1 4 y e a - r sw h o w o r k 1 9 9 5
World

Water Consumption: Europe Annual
150 120

Africa

tuia Latin America & Caribbean Oceania

ffieoys Icitlt

9o Thousands of Litres 6o (percapita) 30 o
1950 1960 1970 1980 ',I990 2000

d)

'What

kind of information do the following tables provide? How does this differ from the graphs? computers Internet-connected worldwide,1981-1999
1987 1988 '1989 1990 '1991 1992 1993 1994 r 09s 1996 1997 1998 1999 28,174 s6,000 159.000 313,000 617,000 1,136,000 2,056,000 3,864,000 6,642,000 12,881,000 19,5r+0,000 36,739,000 56.218,000

of students country by Thelargest number foreign 1995 in of origin, the 50 majorhostcountries: China
Korea.Republicof Japan Germany Greece Malaysia lndia Turkey Italy Morocco France Canada United States

115,87'l
69,736 62,324 45,432 43,941 41,159 39,626 37,629 36,515 34,908 32,411 28.280 27,749

a Ansuer Ke!

Understanding graphs and rables involves understanding the following details: 1. \X/hat is the information or data in the graph or table abo :ut? This [ infarrnation is norma$t suppheA uith ilte graplt or tabla,J 2" r$fhat are the units of rneasufemeflt used? 3. \{hat is the area (place) involved ? 4. \f,hat is the time-scale involved ? 5. What is the purpose of the graph or table?

Writing Tables Visuals: about Graphs, and Diagrams

Let us look at the graphs and tablesshown above once more, and answer the following questions: 'What 1. are the units of measurementused? 2.'W-hat is the area (place) involved ? 3. Vhat is the time-scaleinvolved ? 4. \What is the purpose of the graph or table? After examining the graphs and tables above you will have noticed the following: In the caseof a line graph, the horizontal and vertical axes provide most of the information. Usually trends over a specific period of time are shown in this way. A bar graph shows the samekind of information but with the units presentedas bars or columns. Another kind of bar graph (also called a histogram) may show numerical distributions rather than changes. as Pie graphs show proportions, normally represented percentages. Thbles give detailed data and may be used to display changes over time or they may show distributions of variablesaccording to place, or rype. They usually require more interpretation than graphs do.

Wedge-shaped Graphs 1.4.1 it There is one kind of graph that can causeconfusion because appearsto combine the featuresof both the pie chart or the bar graph and line graph. Look at these graphs and answer the questionsthat follow.

TASK4
Region from Fuel by World Carbon Emissions Fossil Burning Economic
Million Tons 7000 6000 s000 4000 3000 2000 1000

1990

1990

Writingabout Graphs, Tablesand Diagrams Visuals:

l. tVhat was the amount of emissions from industrial countries in 1950? 2.'What was the amount of emissions from developing countries in 1950? 3. How much did the Former Eastern Bloc countries emit in 1980? from 1985 2000 WorldSpending Advertising on (in5US millions)
: : Total ,,::,:::,:,:::America North 33-olO90 c282,OOO ffi rrrop" ffi Asia/lacific I utinAmerica
.r9l,ooo
242,000

24ooo 11

I l

J€4sog,,i:

4. Did the European countries spend more or less than the Asia/Pacific ones on advertising in 1985? 5. Did the Latin American countries spend more or less than the European ones in 2000? a Ansuter Ke!

1.4.2 CombinedGraphs
It is is very common to find two or more graphs presentedtogether.This is usually done to show either a comparison, or a more complicated correlation than can be shown in one graph. A correlation is the way two setsof facts are related to each other. The relationship may be a change over a period of time, or it may be a possiblecauseand effect link. There is a section dealing with Correlations in more detail, starting on page 35.

Writingabout Graphsand Tables
This section is going ro deal with selectingthe right approach and sryle, learning to use the appropriate vocabulary,and becoming aware of the grammar related to this vocabulary. The languageof graphs and tables is divided, for convenience into: , introductory expressions time expressions terms of measurement In Part 3 we will deal with: expressions of comparison and contrast expressions for trends correlations to To use this languagecorrectly,it is necessary keep the following points in mind: 1. You must know the exact meaning and usageof the terms 2. You must know the collocations of the terms: i.e. you must know which expressions together, and which are never found in combination go 3. You must know the grammatical featuresof the terms

4. YOU MUST CAREENOUGH TO BEACCURATE

10

Tables Visuals: Writing about Graphs, and Diagrams

\?arningl From the lis* that follow in this.::.rio:l do NOT, in.your own. writing, useanf expressions areunfarniliar with. Only usethe terms that you examples are you know, and make sureyou know them correctly.Only selected for given here.Ir is essential you to haveat leastone of the following ESL which will give you mor€ examples: dictionaries, Oxford Advanced frarner"s Dictionary Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English Collins CoBuild Dictionary CambridgeDictionary of InternationalEnglish

2.1 Writing Introduction the
Often the hardest part of writing anything is writing the introduction. If you have a good technique for this, then the rest of the task is usually lessdifficult. The first thing to note is that writing about visuals is not the same as writing an This m€ans three things in particular: essay. 'iwite a 1. You are not asked to discuss the information, but generally to report describing" the information. 2. It is not necessaryto write an introduction like in an essayfor this writing task You are writing a report, which means that you do not begin with a broad general statement about the topic. 3. You do not need to write a conclusion which gives any kind of opinion about the significance of the information. So how do you begin?There are three steps. Step l: Identify the main idea behind the graph or table. This will be the focus ofyour first sentence. Step 2: Consider the details of what is being shown -the units of measurement and the time frame - and decide how much you need to include. in Steps 1 and 2 involve understanding the visual. This was discussed Part 1. the Step 3: Consider the languageto use-the introductory expressions, tenses of of the verbs, the correct expressions time and I or measurementetc. For Step 3 this section should help you.

Visuals: Writing Tables about Graphs, and Diagrams

11

2.1,1 What introductory expressions use to
There are three possibleways to start. One is to refer to the visual directly (e.g. This graph shous thepopuktion ofAlia in the 20th centur!.) Howeve! this method is not advisable,since the instructions in the IELIS test will normally give you just this information. If you copy directly your English from the paper you are wasting time, since the examiner cannot assess from a copied sentence. The secondway is to refer directly to the main message conveyedby the visual (e.g. in Tltere was a sharp increase the population ofAlia in the 20th century.)This way is shows that you are able to recognisethe main concept or perfectly acceptable, and m€ssage that the graph or table shows. tbat there utasa sharp increase The third way combines the two (e.g. The graph shouts in the 20th century.)This is also acceptable, and is often in thepopulation ofAlia to used as a convenient way to start. In order to use this method, it is necessary use which refer to the text itself, like those below. a few fixed expressions,

2.1.2 Introductory Expressions
The graph / table shows / indicates / illustrates / reveals / represents It is clear from the graph / table It can be seen from the graph / table As the graph / table shows, As can be seen from the graph I table, As is shown by the graph / table, As is illustrated by the graph / table, From the graph / table it is clear Notice that it is best to avoid using personalpronouns. Instead of saying We can see fom the graph.... it is better to use the passiveor impersonal constructions, as above. Do not forget that the secondway is also very acceptable(i.e., not referring to the text directly at all). There will be more examplesof this in the following pages. Most of the above expressionscan be followed by a clause starting with that. can be followed by a noun or noun phrase. Severalof the above expressions must be followed by a main clause. of the above expressions Several Tiy to identi$' which is which by doing the next exercise.

12

Iables and Diagrams Writing about Graphs, Visuals:

TASK5:
Make all the possible matches between the expressions in the table on the left with those on the right:

1. The graph shows/ indicates
2. It is clear from the table 3. It can be seen from the graph

I a) that thepopulationofAlia greu', i" the 20th centur! I O1tltt groutth in the size of the I

4. As the table shows,
5. As can be seen from the graph, 7. From the graph it is clear

I

populationofAlia 20th century

I c) the PoPulation ofAlia grew in the

6. As is shown/illustratedby the graph, |

o Answer KeJt

'Warnings: 1. Avoid using the phrase: according to the graph. This is becausethe phrase according to generally means that the information comes from another person or source, and not from our own knowledge. (For example,Accordingto tlte Handbook, lou cannot take the exdm more tltan oncein three months. According to my friend, the essay question aas not too dfficuh.) In the caseof a graph or table that is shown, the information is there right in 'knoJ it. That front of you, ,h."*rir.r, and.also the reader,and so you can both is, it does not come from another source. / as 2. Note that the expressions cAn be seenfrom the graph or as is shotttn illustratedby the table do not contain the dummy subiect ir. Avoid these if expressions you think you are going to forget this unusual grammar' is 3. The word preserutrs best avoided, since it requires a sophisticated an summarising noun ro follow. For example: ThegrdPhpres€nts oueruiewof the population gotath of Alia in the last 20 years.

Tables and Diagrams Visuals: Writing about Graphs,

13

TASK6
Which is the best introductory sentence for a description of this graph from the following? 1950 WorldMeatProduction, - 90
Million Tons

80

70 60 50 40 30 20 l0 0 ts-q tr e-.,:::€. o

,,r

Potk a Beef/Buffalo E Poultry

./
/.n ,,,

,r
. - -. , a ' -- E

.4 1980

Sheep/Goats

1950

1960

1970

',1990

a) This graph sltotasthe changesin world rneatProduction betueen 1950 and

1990.
b) From this graph we cAn seethat most meatProduction is a lot higher in 1990 than in 1950. c) Between1950 and 1990 meatproduction in the world rosesignifcantly for all sheep and goat meat. hinds of meat excePt that in 1950 production ofpoulny and sheepand goat meat d) The graplt shouts was less than 5 million tons, uthileproduction ofpork and beefand buffalo uas around 20 million tons. 1n€At rc Ansuter Ke!

2.2TimeExpressions you can start your description with a time fu you can seein the above exercise, phrasein some cases:

significant[t... 1950 and 1990productionrose Betuteen
Even if you do not begin your sentenc€with a time expression,in many cas€s, particularly those involving line graphs, the time frame is given and is an important elemenr of the visual and will need to be mentioned. For this reasonit is important of that you know how to use the common expressions time, and that you revise them from any normal grammar book if they causeyou difficulties. Here are the common ones: for in -and between

during before

from-to/until after

14

Writing Tables and Diagrams Visuals: about Graphs,

in: In 1999... In the 20th century... In the first ten years... in tltere was a significant increase production for: For the first six months... For twenry years...

the number of employes remained the same. during: During the first six months... During the remainder of the year... production was slouing down, while imports increased. from-to/until: From August tol until November... tltere was no changein energl use. between -and: Berween1950 and 1960... tltere uas no changein the rate offuel consumption. before I after: Before 1960 the number remained small,6u afrcr 1965 t/tere utasa sudden increase. From 1950 to 1960... During the first half of this century...

around / about: Around / about l9B0 there was a changein the number offemale part-time employees. byt By the late 19th century the rural workforcehad declinedsignificantQ. at: At the end of the last century tltere utasa sharp increase manufacturing. in since: Since the 19th century there has beena steadyd.ecline. are: Orher usefulexpressions (in) the period from (in) the oeriod between

to and

in the first/last three months of the year to over the period the next years/ decades/ quarter ofa century etc. over over a ten year period throughout the 19th century from that time on after that then in the 1980s

Tables Visuals: Writing about Graphs, and Diagrams

15

Note that you can refer to a decade as the 1980s etc. There is no apostrophe before the s.

2.2.1Usingthe right tenses.
It is important to selectthe correct tenses.Points to remember: a) For most visualsa specific time in the past will be given and you will need to use the past simple tense. If two things took place at the same time, you may use the past continuous tense for one of them. (\Ylhilepoulny production uas rising during this period, tltere utasno changein mutton production). b) If you usesinceor recent(ly)it means that you are referring to events that have come up to the present.That means using the present perfect tense. ( The useof tlte Internet has risen enormouslysincethe 1990s.) . c) \flith by you will often need to use the past perfect or the future perfect tense ($t the end of the centur! tlte rate of urbanisation had doubled.)

7 TASK
Look again at the graph ofVorld Meat Production (in Tirsk 6) and complete the following statements with a suitable expression of time: and goat meat remained almost unchanged 1. Theproduction of sheep

2. rose dramatically.

sharply. theproductionofpork rose and slowly productionincreased 3. Pouhry

steady 4. Beefand bffilo productionexperienced grouth a Answer Ke!

of 2.3 Expressions Measurement it for Since graphs and tablesshow measurements, is necessary you to have a knowledge of the most common terms used to describequantiry and related expressions, and, as always,to know how to use them CORRECTLY. The followins lists are there to act as a reminder for you of nouns that you are probably aheady with, and the familiar with, and to show you the verbs that they are associated rypical phrasesused to describevisual aids.

16

Tables and Diagrams Writing about Graphs, Visuals:

2.3.1 Quantities amount figure the total quantity the whole of the the majority the maximum quanuty the total the total number the whole amount the greatest amount the minimum number the total amount all of the the full amount the greatest number

It is best to use arTount and quantity for uncountable nouns, although both are used for countable nouns as well, particularly quantity. However, num'ber can generallybe safelyused for all countable nouns. in The amount of production increased the last 20 years' The number of cars on the roadsincreasedin the last 20 yearl However, you cannot say *The quantit! ofproduction increased. quantity is only used for items that can actually be measuredor This is because weapons), not for abstract terms. Sinceamount can be counted (e.g. iron ore, shares, / used more widely (e.g. the Amount of utealth / experience waste)it is generally safer to use this word if you are not certain. For number you must of course have a plural, countable noun following: the number people. of cars; tlte number of unemployed There is some confusion about whether the verb following thesephrasesshould be the noun in the singular or plural. Strictly speaking,it should be singular, because number is itself singular, so we should say: The number of carsbas increased.The number of unenployedpeople ltas drcreased. : But you may also come acrossthis kind of sentence Thereare a number ofpeople taho ltaue ashedfor this book. This is becausein this casewe are thinking about the people rather than the number. refersto the actual number itself, not the thing that the number refers ro: While tlte number of Internet usersu)Asonly 2.6 million in 1990, thisf.gure ltas more than doubled in the last tuo years. Thewordf.gure Note the combinations given in the table above (e.g. the total amounr)' A more g simple and idiomatic way of expressin the whole/ total amount is to say all of the or the utholeof the. However, note that all of the can be used with both countable and uncountable nouns (e.g. all of thepopulation; all of the people), while the uthole of the can only be used with uncountable nouns (e.g. the whole of thepopulation; the uhole of theproduction for that year). It is clearly safer to useall of the.

and Diagrams Tables Writing Visuals: about Graphs,

'17

Warning! A common error is to omit the after expressionsIike all.of or tlte . whoh of Do not write Vll of population; "the tahole of energt used.k must be: All of the population; the utholeof the energyused.

Remember also that many is used for countable nouns, while a great deal a/should be used for uncountable nouns. (For uncountable nouns a lot of can be used informally, but it should be avoided in formal writing.) Here is a summary of the in points made above.The expressions bracketsare the lesscommon ones:

\07ith countable nouns (amount) (quantity) number all of the many (a lot o0

With uncountable nouns amount (quantiry) the whole (of the) a great deal of (a lot of)

2.3.2 OtherMeasurements
(i) range €xtent Percent (ii) length altitude frequency rate scale percentage weight area duration distance volume height size level ProPortion degree ratio

The words in set (ii) above (and the adjectivesrelated to some of them) are very restricted in use, and you will be unlikely to need them in the IELIS Academic \WritingTask 1. If you need them in universiry work, you will certainly know their meanings and use. they refer to t However, most of the words in se (i) are very widely used because else,and that is what changeof to the relationship of something to something graphs and tablesare usually designedto show.These terms, however,can present difficulties in usase.

18

Iables and Diagrams Visuals: Writing about Graphs,

2.3.3Usage
Rnte is defined in the Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English as: a quantity such as aalae, cost, or speed, measured hy its relation to sonxe other am.ount, The Cambridge International Dictionary gives this definition: a leuel of speedwith uhich sometbing happens or changes,or the number of times it happens or changes utithin a particuhr period.

So we can talk about the rate of grouth, or, more commonly, the groutth rate of the population; the birth rate; unemPloyment rate; diuorce rate etc. These are all measurements consideredin relation to the rest of the population, or involving changesover time. Leuelindicates lteigbt, as in the leuel of utater in a gl.ass,but it also has the meaning of amount. The Oxford Advanced Learner'sDictionary defines it as: a point or ltosition on a scale of quantity, strengtlt, ualue etc. Collins Cobuild English LanguageDictionary gives this definition: the am.ount of something at a particuhr time;

Thus we can talk about rhe leuel of production| the leuel of expenditure; and also the leuel of unemployment. In all the examples given above, the word leuel could be replaced by the word rate. (i.e. the rate of production; tbe rate of expenditure; the rate of unemltloyment (or the it unemplolment rate).In most cases is probably safer,therefore, to use the word rateunless you especiallywant to refer to a particular point, rather than to make a comparison. by If you think of leuel6eing represented a bar graph, and rate by a line graph, it is with the verb rise and rate goeswith the verb easier to remember that leuel goes increase.(Go to the section on Tiends for further examples.) Most of the other words in the list are not quite so common, and you should not use them unlessyou are confident that you know them well. However, another very common and important term rspercentage. \flhile percent means lircrallyfor euery hundred the word percentage is used more broadly to mean proltortion. Thus we can say that the percentage / proportion of uomen in the utorhforce has risen. The term proportion is also used to compare two things: The proportion of utomen to men in the uorffirce increased.

Writing Tables and Diagrams Visuals: about Graphs,

19

2.3.4 RelatedVerbs be constitute equal include stand at make up comprise account for record become consist of amount to represent reach

The verbs that show change are given in the next section - Tiends.

2.3.5 Usage
It is usually correct to use some form of the verb to be. However, it is not good to keep repeating the sameverb. On the other hand, it is safer to use the sameverb repeatedlyand correctly than to use any of the other ones incorrectly. It is therefore Your above accurately. best to learn to use at least two or three of the expressions ESL dictionary will give you more examples,but here are some: The number of unemployedutas 10% of thepopulation. uas higher than in t/tepreuiousyear. Thepercentageof uomen in the u.,orkforce of Women madc up / constituted a signifcant Percentdge the uorkforce. *comltrise nearly half of all householdwaste. Food and garden materials Paper and cardboard amounted to 2lo/o of the total householdLuaste. Thepopulation ofAlia stood at 21 million at the turn of the centur!. accountfor the majority of greenhouse ga;es. Fossilfuel emissions The consumption offossil fuels reached the highest leuelsin recentlears. *Note: It is difficult to use comprise correctly, since it has several related meanings, and can also be used in the passive. It is best to avoid using this word, unless you are very confident. Check your ESL Dictionary for examples.

2.3.6 MathematicalExpressions halve vb. half n. treble vb. triple n. multiply vb. quarter n. / vb I average ad1. vb I n. total adj. / vb. fraction n. adj. / n.. equal double n. / vb. threefold adj. divide vb. partial adj.

20

Tables and Diagrams Writing about Graphs, Visuals:

2.3.7 Phrases
Note especially the use of the prepositions at, in and,uith in some of the following, and try to learn these phrases, as they are very useful: production roseat a rate of 20o/oper yar / per annum / p.a. consumptionstoodat tlte sameleuel in thefollouing decade the annual increaseuas in / uithin the range of 10o/oand 20o/o by / production increased decreased 20o/o tbe innease taasuer! signifcant, at 50o/o producer, u.,ith 45o/oof the total production X was the largest tlte number remained steadyat 300 for tl'te next year Exports doubled, to reaclt 80o/oof imports in 1990 As tltree times as many users in thepreuiousledr There zuere The number of usersincreasedf.uefold

TASK8
Graphs and tables often refer to common situations, and certain nouns often occur. Test yourself to see if you know how to use some of them by making all the possible matches between the words in the first column and those in the second.

number amounr size degree

I population I GDP
I employees I unemployment l l

quantiry rate | literary
I production

level

I growth arms sales clgar€tt€consumptlon smokers income / expenditure years a Ansuter Ke!

terms to avoid mistakeslike the Warning: Be carefulto usem€asurement Following: "In thepast 10 yearsthe carsrose insread of; In thepast 10 yearsthe numberof carsrose.

Tables and Diagrams Writing about Graphs, Visuals:

21

2.3.8 RelatedAQjectivesand Adverbs of The expressions amount should be modified with suitable adjectivesand adverbs:

Common Adjectives: with examplesof appropriate These are some of the more common adjectives, collocations: high / low: a high / lota percentage large: a large number greau a great number / significant: a signifcant number / percentage amount considerable: a considrrableamount / increase / substantial: a substantial increase decrease / major: a major increase decrease remarkable: a remarkable increase steady: a steadydecrease widespreadz the widespreadconsumption

2.6.2 Common Adverbials:
Adverbs and adverbial phrasesare also widely used to modi$' adjectivesor numbers precisemeaning. Here are some examples: in order to express overz ouer20o/o under: under 5000 just over / under: just ouer/ under 50 000 people around / about: around / about 50o/o approximat ely: approximately 2 5 % slightly: slightly more tltan half; slightly ouer 40o/o marginally: a marginalfi smallerpercentage significantly signifcantlyfewer u)omen close to: closeto half more exPorts considerably: considerably substantially lesstrffic substantially, almost: almost exactlytwice as many NOTE: Many of the above adjectivesand adverbials,as well as others, are listed under Tiends.

22

Tables and Diagrams Visuals: Writing about Graphs,

TASK9
Fill the gaps in the following description of the table by selecting any appropriate expression from those given. Note that more than one choice may be correct!

in Types Waste the University NSW 1996 of at of
Auditarea
Outside eatingareas Inside buildings

Waste type

yoof total twastestream
: : 3096 40%
22o/o 7o/o 520h 6% 30h

A4 paper-used one side on ) A4 paper-used both sides l on paper other cardboard compostable material comoostable materials cardboard paper and ferrous metal ; cardboard compostable material i compostaDte mar plastic packaging glass ferrous metal

(building Skips wastecontainers) FoodOutlets

40% 15% 9o/o 30% 27o/o 30Vo 3% 3Vo

in reported the UNSW suruey 1966, it was in Of all the waste found that 2 uaspaper whicb 52o/oof the utaste found in buildings. Both in outsideeating areasand in skips 3 4 compostable materials, uhich 5 total. Consideringthe 6 clearthatT 1. a) the krgest amount d) the biggestnumber 2. a) made up b) included c) accountedfor b) most c) amounted to c) accountedfor t) f"ll number d) utas c) the highestleuel d) accounted for d) stoodat d) majority 3. a) the most signifcant proportion d) the greatestpercentage. of 4. a) consisted 5. a) represented percentage 6. a) u.,hole 7. a) the majority d) most of it b) uas b) utas b) total dmount could be recycled re-usedin someuay. or proportion b) the greatest c) the majority of tuaste

40o/o the of

of waste collectedin the uniuersity, it is

b) practically all of it

Amount c) nearly the u.,hole

Tables Visuals: Writing about Graphs, and Diagrams

TASK 10
Read the following description of the pie chart given, and underline all the expressions of measurement, and put a circle around the verbs. Then write a description of the graph that follows, using as many of these expressions as you can. generation Australia fuel type,1996/97 in Efectricity by

ffio,tt coal ffi Brown

I c"'
N fl Blackcoal Hyd'o

It is clearfom thepie chart that in 1996/7 bfo, the greatestproportion of electricity produced wasgeneratedby oil, at 59o/o.Lesstltan half as muclt, namely 26%o, tuas Black coal and gastogether accountedforanother 15% of from brown coal. leauing hydropowerat only 0.3o/o.In other utords,uirtually 100% of generatioru, electricirygeneration in Australia at the time camefom fossilfuels, and only the source. insignif.cant amount of 0.3o/ocamefom a reneuable energJt

WorldEnergy Sources

Coal 23o/o

24

Tables and Diagrams Writing about Graphs, Visuals:

11 TASK
Read the following description of the bar graph given underneath, then cover the description and try to fill the gaps in the version below. You do not need to use exacdy the same expressions as those given, but the meanings and grammar must be accurate. 1999 Countries The TopRice-producing Ten
China: lndia: lndonesia: Bangadesh: Viet Nam: Thailand: Malaysia: Japan: Philippines: USA:

28,293

27,&6 23,240 16,600
12,53'l 10,000 8.r83 Thousands oftons

Mne of the ten top riceproducing countriesin the world in 1999 tuerein Asia. As producer of rice, u.,ith nearfit 193 million one utould expect,China wds the greatest tonnes.It wasfollouted by India, uthichproduced ouer 122 million tonnes,w/tile producer, Indonesia, uAs responsible about one third of that the third lnrgest for Amount, at just ouer 46 million tonnes.Bangladesh,Viet Nam and Thailand had similar leuelsofproduction, i.e. between20 and 30 million tonneseach, while Malaysia, Japan and the Philippines ranged between16 and l0 million tonne* The only non-Asian producer on the list, the USA, accounted just ouer B for million tonnes. Nine of the ten toP rice-producingcounties in the utorld in 1999 uere in Asia. As one would expect,China was tonnes. b tuasfollowed by India, which

of rice, tonnes, uhile the , A.t Just

utas , Indonesia, responsibh for and Thailandhad similar Viet Bangladesh, Nam ouer46 m. tonnes. Japanand the Philippines
Droduceron the list, the USA,

, i.e. between20 and 30 million tonn€seac/t,uhile Malaysia, tonnes.The only non-Asian 8 million tonne;

. : j j : : : : : : : : :: .

.

.

::: : .

::

:"":::::::::

: r : : : ; : i : : : : : : : : : :: j::::::::::::::l::. ' :: l j : : : : : : : : : " r r

... .:.:::::::::.i:::i.::i:i::: ...,,,.:..,........:.-::: '.:::::t:::::::::::::::::. :: t..... : ::: l::l:l::,1::llll::::l:i::l:l:: t: .: :l

..::::i::: .....:......i::: ...:::::..:,:::: .:::.r:: : ::.:..

::.:::.

':::::r..::i:ili...i:.:: :...::::::::::i :r:. .
::::j::r::::*:::::::::::.:::::::::::::::::::::,air...:j:.;.:::::,

Writingthe Report
Graphs and tablesare generally intended to show comparisons,contrastsor a correlations.In some cases variety of things are compared or contrasted,while in items are compared at different times. This is done to show the same orher cases movement or trends. This section will deal with comparisonsof different items, while the next section, on trends, will deal with changesover time. \7e will then look at how correlations are used and interpreted.

and Correlation Contrast 3.1 Comparison,
Note that the verb to comParemeans to show both the similarities and the differences between two things, while to contrast means simply to reveal the There is, for differences.It is therefore enough to use corrlPare both Purposes. they may show a however,a significant difference in looking at correlations because -often a causeand relationship between two things happening at the same time further below. effect relationship.This will be discussed There are many ways of expressingcomparison.

3.1.1lmplicitContrast of a In some cases conrrast is implied because the way the ideasare juxtaposed, that For example: is, placed next to each other. president. Betastan is a military Alia is a republic utith a popukrly elected dictatorship. or In this caseit is not necessary, even desirable,to use a connector such as the contrast is so obvious. The sryle of writing is improved if By contrast, because connectorsare not overused,so implicit contrast is worth using at least from time to time.

26

Visuals: Writing about Graphs, Tables and Diagrams

3.1.2 Explicitcontrast
Contrast is shown explicitly by using various parts of speech,particularly connectors. The most simple comparisonsare expressed with the words: less fewer greater more lower larger smaller higher

3.1.3 Usage
To use thesecorrectly you need to consider the nouns they are usedwith. Look again at the common measurementterms we have studied: amount rate Percentage a number level

quantity size

degree proportion

greater larger smaller

amount

al

greater lnumber larger higher smaller lower I I proportron percentage

quantiry size degree rate level

a

greater higher lower

l. More hss andfeuer do not combine with any of the nouns listed above. 2. More, greater, higherand lzssare usedwith uncountable nouns and the singular verb: There is more / greater / lessgrowth in GNP p.a.in Alia than in Bestastan. 3. More andfewer are followed by countable nouns in the plural: Tltere uteremore / fewer accidents last lear than tlte year before.

Visuals: Writing about Graphs, Tables and Diagrams

27

TASK 12
The bar graph below shows the number of television receiversper 1,000 inhabitants in the world in 1970 and 1990. 'W'rite a report for a university lecturer describing the information shown below.
Developed counfles

ffi I

rczo rcaT

First consider the following ways of expressing the same idea for an introductory sentence: a) In 1970 the number ofW muclt lessthan in 1997. in b) In 1997 tlte number of W receiuers the utorld uas muclt greater than in receiuers 1000 inhabitants in the world zuas per

1970. in c) There were nearly tltree times as mdny W receiuers the uorld in 1997 as in 1970. in d) There uterefar more W receiuers the utorld in 1997 than in 1970. in e) The outnershipof W receiuers 1997 utas200o/o (three time) higher than in

1970.
Which of the above do you think are the best descriptions? Vhy? Now try to describe the rest of the graph using the most appropriate expressions you can, and avoiding repetition. a Ansuer Ke!

28

Tables and Diagrams Writing Visuals: about Graphs,

Similarity can be shown by using: similarly in the same way both.... and.... also as....as.... likewise the same as well as too just as x, y... equally in a similar way I fashion not only... but also like x, y.... just as x, so y....

by Contrast -which is more common -can be expressed using: but however nevertheless yet on the other hand unlike while whereas although even though as opposed to in contrast to by contrast instead of aPart from except for

13 TASK
Some of the above te conjunctions and are used within sentences, to connect clauses,while some are connectorsthat are used to join sentences.'lfhich are the ones that are used to start a new sentence?Some arc ltrepositions and must be followed by nouns. \7hich are these? rc Ansuter Key

of 3.1.4Other Parts Speech
Contrast can also be shown by using specificverbs, adjectivesand nouns: Verbs: compare (with / to) contrast (with) differ (from) differentiate (between) distinguish (bemeen) resemble Adjectives: compared (with / to) contrasting different (from) distinct (from) as distinct from same the sameas similar (to) Nouns: comparison rn comPanson wlrn contrast ln contrast to difference (between) distinction (bemeen) resemblance(to / with) similarity (with) variation (between) change (from)

vary (from / between) change (from / to)

Tables and Diagrams Visuals: Writing about Graphs,

29

WARNINGI!! are Cornparedand carnparing often usedincorrectly. Look at thesesentences: uith x, y is morefficient. Compared Comparingx with y wef.nd that x is moreeficient. Comparingwith x, y is morefficient. Two of tlre aboveare ceffect and one is incorrect Can you seewhich is which? Peoplecomparethings (or people).If the activevoice is used(comparing)then it -i.e. people.Sowe say: must referto someone doing the comparing Comparingx with y wefind that... (by Comparingx with y it can beseen us)that,,.. If the personor peopledoing the comparingare not relevantto the ssntenc€, are must be used.So the first two sentences then the passive form (corupared) correct,but not the lastone. ^,?"! efficientis grammaticallycomect,but it with But note also:Co,mpared !: ! the srylistically. a comparison .For within a sentence, is not a verygood sentence and of useof an explicit expression comparisonis not usuallynecessary actually should only be usedin more clumsy.Suchexpressions makesthe sentence of between sentences, longersections text. Vithin a or complexcomparisons, it is normally enough to say:X is wore fficient thanjt. sentenq€,

30

Tables and Diagrams Visuals: Writing about Graphs,

TASK 14
Fill in the gaps in the following description, using expressions from the above lists. Try to vary the expressions you use, to avoid repetition.

Patterns Alia, in 1920- 2000 Employment
80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 1920 1960 Manufacturing Professional Business Other Agriculture 2000

emPlqtedin agricuhure In 1920, 75o/oof the labourforce in Alia Luas and trade. At the sametime only 10o/outorked in business mdnulacturxng sector

the

theprofessionalsectorconstitutedjust 2%oof

the utorkforceeach.Thissituation changedonly uerygradually ouer tlte next 20 years, more t/tan threefold. the professionalutorkforce,which increased

in by 1970 therehad been significantchange thepattern of a emplqtment. had declined in number the agricubural employees to 40% of the uorkforce, manufacturing emPlolees

tlteir share 13o/o to and 10% respectiuely. had professionak increased until 1970. Tlte most the business sector not increase did couldbeseen 1990, uthentheproportionof by dramatic agricubural utorhersuas reducedto just 10o/o sectorshad all inueased to ouer 20o/o of the uorhforce. nj Answer Key the three otlter maior

Visuals: Witing about Graphs, Tables and Diagrams

31

TASK 15
WorldMeatProduction, 1950 90
Million Tons

80 60

70 ,t 50 40 30 n,/ ttt-4F

Pork a Beef/Buffalo

/1 ",'/ n 6......:: -$ --...,w' € &.

4 Poultry

20 10 0

o Sheep/Goats 1990

1950

1960

1970 1980

in Worldproduction increased all typesof meat

sheep and

goats betuteen1950 and 1990. There was a shw rise in theproduction ofporh and

afier thispork production nend. a increased morerdpidb. Pouhryproductionshowed
Startingfom a lou baseofjust 5 million tons, it increasedrelatiuely slowlyfor the

beeJ/bffilo meat to 1980, up

period. first 20 yearsof the reported ouer until by 1990 it had reached 30 million tons.
5 million tons.

sharply, , ortt, that it increased , the

and goat meat remained steadyt/trougltout the period at around production of sheep

rc Answer Kel

32

Visuals: Writing about Graphs, Iables and Diagrams

3.2 Trends: Increaseand Decrease
Graphsas Landscape
Because the appearance graphs,the following geographic of of and descriptive er/ \ICONSULTANT\./ \l(tnternationa-l/Australianl,/ operations) rRevdlsalrs TRAVEL5ALE5 SUPERVTsOR 'sIPERVTSOR I (Commercial (Tourism) | Private Sector) PublicSectoror | Domestic Specialised \ | \ : rnnvtcorusutteut / TRAVEL CONSULTANT (lnternational Operations) . TRAVELCONSULANT (Domestic Operations) TRAVEL CLERK

,XRX#*

MANAGER

+

,.2+ TRAVEL 5ALE5 ASSISTANT

a Ansuer Key

Visuals: Writing Tables and Diagrams about Graphs,

57

TASK 28
The diagram below shows the nitrogen cycle. 'W'rite a report for a university lecturer describing the information shown below. THENITROGEN CYCLE

IN NITROGEN THE SOIL

NITROGEN-FIXING BACTERIA IN NODULESOF LEGUMINOUs PLANTS

DEAD PLANTS. ANIMALSand ANIMAL EXCRETA

tc Answer Key

Visuals: U/riting about Graphs, Tables and Diagrams

TASK 29
The diagram below shows the production of steam using a gas cooled nuclear reactor. 'Write

a report for a university lecturer describing the information shown below.

A GosCooled NucleorReoctor heol exchonger hotgos duct chorgefubes steomto furboolternotor

fuel uronium elemenis grophite moderotors pressure vessel concrete shleld

a Anstuer Ke!

Note: Many text booksfor English learners dealwith the writing of of and descriptions processes you should refer to theseif you needmore practice.

Visuals: Writing Tables and Diagrams about Graphs,

59

AnswerKey
Part 1
1. c) and e). Generally,avisual is used to assistin making a concept clearer,but often, especiallywith tables, the purpose is to give more details.Actually, a), b) and d) are also correct! 2. c) and d). Since the purpose of a graph or table is to make the text easierto understand, a) cannot be correct. Giving exactly the same information (b) is definitely not the purpose. However, sometimesfurther explanationsare given (c), and it is always necessary comment on the significanceof the visual (d). to it 3. c) is the correct answer,because givesa summary of the significanceof the in graph. In text a) the figures are simply expressed words, which are much more difficult to understand than the graph itself while b) was written by someone who is going well beyond what is in the graph and is discussingcaus€s. 4. 1) Over 1000 million tons; 2) Too small to identify 3)Just under 1000 million tons; 4) More ($31,000 million, against$27,187 million; 5) Less ($29,815 against$9z,ooo million).

Part2.
5. 1 goeswith a) and b). Although c) is possible,it is more common in spoken English, and it is better to use thatin front of the clause. but it is better to insert thatin 2,3 andT all go with a). Again, c) is possible, written English. 4,5 and 6 all go with c) only.

6. .) answers, arethe most likely ones: but 7.The following arenot the only possible 1950 and 1990 / fom 1950 to 1990 l. between 2. Afier 1960 / From 1960 (on / onutards) 1950 and 1970 / fom 1950 to 1970 / for 20 yearsafier 1950, 3. benteen dramatically, and then/ afier tltat rose 4. throughout 40 years the from 1950 / fom 1950 to 1990 / fom 1950for t/te next40 years.

60

Visuals: \fdriting about Graphs, Tables and Diagrams
8. In this task there are three kinds of answers:a) those which are completely correct and which are, in fact, the most common expressions; those which are b) -they sound rather odd to native speakers not quite wrong, but not very usual of English; and c) those which are completely wrong. The following are the most commonly used combinations: the number of the amount of the size of the degree of the quantity of the rate of smokers; employees; lears G!n; an€mplolment; production; grouth; arms sales; cigaretteconsumption;income; expenditure the population unemplolment; literacy; cigaretteconsumption production; arms sahs; cigaretteconsumption unemplolment; Iiteracy; production; grou)th; cigarene consumption;expenditure. (Better is: the unemplolment rate, tlte literacy rate, the grouth rate). the leuel of 9. 1. a) and b) 5. a) and c) GDP; unemplolment; literacy; income; expenditure. 2. a) and c) 6. b) 3. a) and d) 7.b) and c) and d) 4.^)

Part3.
'per 1000 12. a) and b) and d) are all too vague, and in a) the phrase inhabitants' is not necessary. The best sentenceis c). \fhile e) is OK, it is rather too formal. 13. Conjunctions, within sentencesare: but, uthile, rultereas, abhouglt, euen tbough. Yet, New sentencesmust be started with: Howeuer,Neuertheless, On the other hand, By contrast. Prepositions are: unlihe, as opposed in contrast to, instead of, apartfom, to, for. These must be followed by nouns, not clauses. except

14.The following are not necessarily the only correct answers,but they are the most likely ones: uthile both While / Whereas uthile 15. The following ar€ not necessarily the only corr€ct answers,but they are the most likely ones: Houeuer exc€pt / apart fom but similar for Meanwhile / On the other hand. and as well as Houeuer except / apart fom for change/ dffirence Similarly

Tables and Diagrams Visuals: Writing about Graphs,
17. I. increased

61

2. expanded

5. has steadily decreased

3. grew 6. remained

4. rose 7. utasreduced

18. These are the most idiomatic combinations. Others may occur which are not necessarily wrong, but are unusual or odd. the number of + utorkers + all the verbs except: shrank; dropped; reduced the quantitlt of + consumPtion + all the verbs except reduced theproportion + tlte uorhforce; the banking sector;( the) uorkers; consumPtion; production; + all the verbs except dropped; reduced the rate of + consum?ilon;Production; emplqlment + all verbs except reduced the leuel of + the same as above for the rate of thepercentageof + the utorkforce;the banking sector;(the) utorkers;consumption; declined; greu; production + rose; fell; inneased; decreased; dropped;fluctuated the size of + the uorkforce; the banhing sector r increased;decreased; declined; grew; expanded; shranh; fluctuated the amount of + consumPtion; Production; emPlqtment + all the verbs except reduced it Note: reduced cannot be used in any of the above because is a transitive verb and must have an object! It is possibleto use it in the passive;e.g.the number of shrank. workersuas reducedafrer the business 20. This is one possiblemodel answer: There is a clear correlation betuteenthe leuel offemale literacy and the leuel of countries population growth in the uorld. The graph shows f.guresfom selected 1998 and 2000. The bighestpercentageoffemale literacy wasfound in betuueen Thailand and Colombia, which also had among* the lowestpopulation grouth The rates,narnely l.4o/o and 1.8o/orespectiuely. otlter countriesnamed u,,ith high literacy rdtesare Sri Lanka, Jamaica and the Dominican Republic, each uith ouer 80%o female literaqt, and in eachcasethepopuktion groutlt rate is under 2o/o. By contrast, thosecounnies utith uery low leuelsoffemale literacy shotu extremely high f.guresfor population grouth. Afghanistan, with only 9o/oof utomen being Arab literate, /tas an enormousgrouth rate, namely 4.5o/oand the Yemen (8%), is secondon the Republic, with an euenlouer number of literate uaomen list, utith 3.j% population grotatlt. The other coun*ies listed shouta similar Pattern. uery likely that this correlation is not accidental, and that higherfemale It seems literacy leadsto greater useoffamily planning methods.

62

Visuals: Witing about Graphs,Iables and Diagrams
21. L The top ten spendersand top ten earnersare nearly the same. 2. NI except for Japan, UK, Germany, Canada and Netherlands earned more than they spent. 3. The top destinationsin terms of numbers of visitors did not completely coincide with the top earnings. Here is a possiblemodel answer. There is a strong correlation betuteentlte countries that were the top 10 spenders andthose utho ouere top 10 earnersin tourism in 1998. Allthe top spenders the excePt JaPan and the Netherlands uere also arnong the top 10 earners,abhough UK Germarytand Canada earned lessthan they spent. Interestingfit,tlte correlation betuteen top eArners the and the mostpopular drstinations is not so direct. While the US earned more than twice as much as France ($74 billion as against $29.7 billion), France actually had 70 million arriuals as opposedto47.1 millionfor the US. Houteuer,in the caseof haly and Spain the earningsand number of arriuals u)eremore closelycorrelated. the Neuertheless, costof tourism in somecountriesis clearly much higher tltan in others,so tltat uthile Mexico and Poknd receiued around 19 million uisitorseach (pkcing tltem aboueCanada and Ausnia), they do not dPPearamong the top elrners, while Ausnalia, uhich earned $8.6 billion, doesnot aPPearamong the top ten destinationsfor arriuals.

Part4.
22. l. a) significant; An enormous b) signifcantly; enormously;a great deal c) a great deal; signifcantly; enormously d) significant;enormous 2. more than 3. signifcantly; xeadily

23. dramatic/ (noticeable)/ (remarkable); (dramaticalll / remarkably; noticeable; about rather

24.The following are suggested answers only: enormously drariaricallyi" relatiuelyI quite; / uery/ extremely: just ouer; slightly; more tltan / uell ouer

Visuals:Writingabout Graphs, Tablesand Diagrams

63

versions.Note that in the first casethe last sentence 25,Here are two suggested of the original is kept, and in the second caseit is only slighdy modified, since there is no redundancy th€re. l. The graph shouls enormousinnease in tbe rate of email usein the UK An and betueen 1998 and 2004. In 1998 there were about l0 million email users by 2000 thisfgure had doubled. The graph showsthis trend continuing until 2002 and then a slight reduction in growth rate to 2004. 1950 and 1990 there uas a dramatic change 2. The graph showsthat betu,teen in the rate of arranged marriagesin Japan. Whik at the beginning of this period about 650/oof the population uterein arranged marriages,and only around 22o/o had loue marriages,by 1990 this proportion taasinuerted, uith B3o/obeing in loue marriagesand on$ 15%oinuolued in arranged marriages. are: 26. The incorrect sentences but it is an'empry'one: it conveysnot real 1. This is not an incorrectsentence, information. 2,3, and 4 arc correctbut 3 is not very good in sryle. 2. It 5. Expenditure cannot hauean increase. can, however, increaseasinsentence 6. is correct. 7.Here the verb happenis inappropriate. You can replace itby wasfound. 8. You cannot spendexpenditure the noun andverb do not go tog€ther. 9. The verb perform is incorrect here. You could sayNorth America was responsible for the highestamount of expenditureon aduertising. 10. The verb spendis in the passivehere, so it cannot have an object!A correct version would be: The lowestamount tltat utassPentu)d.s $956 million, by Latin America. Or: $956 was spent by Latin America, and this uas the louest Amount.

Part5. Diagrams.
The following are suggested model answers:

27. in Nitrogen moues a cyclethrough the air plants and animals and the soil, and back into the air. Tbe action of lightning and offee-liuing nitrogen-f.xing bacteria carriesthe nitrogen into the soil. At tlte sametime somenitrogen-fixing bacteria in the nodulesof leguminousplants take the ninogen directlyfom the air. The nitrogen in the soil is taken up by non-leguminousgreenplants, wltile directlyfom the bacteria in their leguminous pknts deriue (get) nitrogeru nodules.Both typesof pknts are consumedby animak. Tlten, wheruthe animak their food, the ninogen is returned to the and plants die, or tlte animals excrete causethe nitrogen to be soil, where it is acted on by dennifiting bacteria. These returned to the air and the cyclecontinun.

64

Visuals: U/riting Tables and Diagrams about Graphs,

28.
Tbprogressin the trauel industry there are tu)o careerpaths that can befollowed. can assistantor a nauel clerk, an employee frst Beginning as either a trauel sales become trauel consubantfor domesticolterationsand then bepromoted to a international operations.From there it is possibleto mouein three directions. Ti,auelconsubantscan become senior trauel consuhants,but fom that position to there is no further direct promotion. They can abo cltoose moueeither in the direction of the commercialpriuate sector,or tourism and thepublic or specialised superuisorand In domesticsector. tlte priuate sectorthe next stePis to trauel sales or branch manager.In the tourism sectorone fom there to small agenc! manag€r can either bepromoted to nauel administration manager or marketing manager. \Vhile both small agenc! mdnagersand marketing managerscan moueuP to CEO leueldirectly for branch managersand trauel administration managers there is still another stage,that of senior manager,to go through beforereaching the top.

29.
A gas-cooled nuclear reActorconsists the reactor itself and a heat exchanger. of The reactor contains uranium fuel elementswhich are surrounded by graphite and boron moderatorsand topped by chargetubesfor loadingfuel elements, sunounded by a The tuhole reactor is contained in a pressureuessel control rods. concreteshield. There From the reActorthe hot gasflou.,sthrough a duct into the heat exchanger. out to the a pipe brings in water uhich is heated to stedm,and this thenflouts turbo-ahernator. Meanu)hile the hot gas sinks to the bottom of the heat excltanger and passes through a gas blouter uhich pushesit into a coolgas duct and back to the reactor.