Final Exam Review – Psychology 101
INTRODUCTION
You are influenced by: 1. Physiology of your nervous system 2. 5 Senses 3. Cognition – Thinking and Problem Solving 4. Social Environment 5. Personality 6. Stress & psychological disorders
Psychology is the science of what? Behavior * Science Aspect * Based on Experiments * Behavior * What is behavior? Observable through * Neural * Verbal * Social * Etc. * What is behavior driven by? * Mind * Body * Environment

Basic Research vs. Applied Research * Basic Research is the seeking of more knowledge but not to solve a problem * Applied Research is using knowledge to solve a problem

Figuring out what a part of the brain does is an example of? Basic Research

Knowing what a part of the brain does and using that information to analyze why a part of a person’s brain isn’t working correctly? Applied research

BEGINNINGS OF PSYCHOLOGY

Who established the first laboratory devoted to Psychology, when, and where? * William Wundt, 1879, Leipzig, Germany

Before 1800, questions of the mind were reserved for what field? * Philosophy

From 1800 to 1879, rapid advances took place in what field? * Physiology

Early psychology applied what methods to the study of the mind? * Physiological

NEURONS

1600: Descartes & the Garden of St. Germain * Statues “came to life” as he walked through the garden * Gave way to thought about reflexes

What are reflexes? * Reflexes are simple behaviors. They are FAST, AUTOMATIC, REACTIONS, to STIMULATION

What are the three processes in a reflex, in order? * Reception – Stimulation from the senses * Transmission – Neurons * Reaction – Muscles

Rene Descartes considered what aspect of reflexes? * Transmission – He said that the body must have a transmission mechanism to connect stimulation and response. * He was right, it is the NEURON that TRANSMITS information from the FIVE SENSES to the MUSCLES to form the REACTION.

The NEURON is made of what parts, and what do those parts do? * The DENDRITES receive messages from other cells - RECEPTION * Connected to the Cell Body * The CELL BODY is the cells life-support center * The AXON passes messages away from the cell body to other neurons, muscles, or glands - TRANSMISSION * The AXON does this through the Neural Impulse (ACTION POTENTIAL) which travels from the CELL BODY to the AXON, to the Terminal branches of the axon * ACTION POTENTIAL is an electro chemical process in which positively charged sodium ions cross in the neuron, creating a brief electrical charge. Positively charged Potassium ions then leave the neuron, ending the charge. * Move towards the Terminal Branches * The MYELIN SHEATH covers the AXON. * TERMINAL BRANCHES form junctions with other cells. – REACTION

The All-or-None Law states that: * A neuron will either fire or it won’t. * Neurons fire when stimulation exceeds the neuron’s threshold * Intensity of the signal will NOT increase as the strength of the stimulus increases.

Sir Charles Scott Sherrington inferred what aspect of the neuron: * He inferred that neurons must communicate across a gap: The Synapse * The SYNAPSE is the junction between the terminal branches of the sending neuron and the dendrites of the receiving neuron. * What was his experiment? DOG TICKLING * To tickle the dog’s saddle * Soft (Below the threshold required to produce a reflex) * No Reflex * But REPEATEDLY * Dog will respond with a reflex * Hard (Above Threshold) * Reflex * Concluded that there is no all-or-none law for reflexes * Signal can sum before stimulating next neuron.

What are Neurotransmitters? – Chemicals released by the sending neuron that trigger (or inhibit) action potential in the receiving neuron. * REUPTAKE - Excess neurotransmitter is reabsorbed, stopping its influence on the receiving neuron * SOME TYPES * Serotonin – affects mood, hunger, sleep & arousal. Low levels linked to depression. * Dopamine – affects attention & emotion. Increased levels produce euphoria. * Excessive dopamine can lead to what? schizophrenia * Endorphins – produce a ‘high’ * Prozac – Reuptake inhibitor, increases available serotonin – treat depression * Morphine – Agonist, mimics natural endorphins – pain killer * Clozapine – Antagonist – Blocks dopamine. Used to treat schizophrenia * Cocaine – Reuptake inhibitor of dopamine

Nervous System – Billions of neurons working together * Peripheral * Autonomic (Self-regulating) * Sympathetic (arousing) * Parasympathetic (Calming) * Central (Brain and Spinal Cord)

THE BRAIN
The Brain is part of the central nervous system * MAJOR SUBDIVISIONS * Cerebral Cortex – Complex thinking, developed more recently * Brain Stem – Basic movement & survival. * Thalamus – relays messages to different areas of the brain * Medulla – Base of brainstem, controls heartbeat and breathing * Cerebellum – Controls movement and balance
What part of the brain is linked to heartbeat and breathing? * The Medulla
What part of the brain is related to complex thinking? * The Cerebral Cortex
What part of the brain controls movement and balance? * Cerebellum

Each hemisphere of the brain divided into 4 lobes * Frontal lobes: Functions include controlling motor functions, impulse control. * Occipital Lobes: Functions include controlling vision and color recognition. * Parietal Lobes: Functions include controlling speech, information processing, and cognition. * Temporal Lobes: Functions include controlling hearing, memory, and emotional responses.

How were the functions of the Cerebral Cortex Discovered? * Lesion – To remove a portion of the brain * Electrical stimulation – artificially activate an area of the brain * Monitoring/Imaging – Observe brain activity

Each hemisphere (left and right) controls the opposite visual field and controls the opposite side of the body. * The LEFT hemisphere controls VERBAL & SEQUENTIAL thinking * The RIGHT hemisphere controls VISUAL & PATTERNED thinking

What connects the two hemispheres? * Corpus Callosum

What is cut to treat epilepsy in extreme cases? * Excess activity in the brain leads to seizures * Severing Corpus Callosum will treat some cases

If there was a bug on the LEFT SIDE, your RIGHT BRAIN (Visual & patterned thinking) would see it and draw that, while if there was an eye on the RIGHT SIDE, your LEFT BRAIN (Speech) would verbally point out that it is an eye)

What is the “Stroop Effect?” * Blue * The word hits your left hemisphere while the color hits your right * You’d say the color is blue when it is in fact red.

THE 5 SENSES
What is the stimulus for vision? * Light, from 400 nm to 750 nm * ROYGBIV * Longer to Shorter wavelength
How does light operate? * As a wave, it has 2 characteristics * Wavelength * Distance between waves in billionths of a meter (10^-9m) * Amplitude * Height (energy) of a wave * Higher amplitude = Brighter light * Hue (or color) * Different wavelengths of light result in different colors

Rene Descartes dissected a bull’s eye and observed that there is a focused imagine inside the eye and did a lot towards the anatomy of an eye.
What is the Retina? Light sensitive cells on the back of the eye * Made up of rods & cones * Cones * 6 Million of them * Located in the center of the retina * They are NOT sensitive in dim light * They are color sensitive * They are detail sensitive * Rods * 120 Million of them * Located in the periphery * They are HIGHLY sensitive in dim light * They are NOT color sensitive * They are NOT detail sensitive

* CODING FOR COLOR * We detect features when neurons specific to a color feature fires * All colors can by created by mixing red, green, and blue light * All colors are detected by activating a mixture of red, green, and blue cones.
What is the Visual Cortex? * Located in the back of the Brain * Neurons in the Optic Nerve send information to the Visual Cortex * Here we have neurons that code for shape, orientation, movement, etc.

The Stimulus for Hearing * Compressed air molecules produce SOUND WAVES. * Characteristics of Sound Waves: * Frequency * Short wavelength = High frequency & vice versa * Amplitude * Height of the wave = Changes in loudness * In decibels (dcb) * The threshold of Hearing is 0 dcb * Prolonged exposure above 85 dcb produces hearing loss * Rock band at close range (140 dcb)

THE EAR

SOUND RECEPTORS: Hair Cells * Are hair cells neurons? Yes. * They vibrate in response to particular sound frequencies * Hair cells are located in the cochlea. * The signals are located in the auditory cortex (Left hemisphere)

TOUCH * There are specialized receptors in the skin for pressure, temperature, and pain. * Pressure (stretch) receptors in muscle for perceiving posture. * Signals are sent to the SENSORY CORTEX.

TASTE & SMELL * Receptors in the nose and mouth that respond to chemicals * Unknown number of types * Signals are sent to overlapping areas in the cortex.

VISUAL PERCEPTION

Sensation: Recording Features physiologically
Perception: Interpreting what you see * Many ways in which thinking & interpretation influences what we see * Grouping * Depth Perception * Perceptual Set * Context

GROUPING * Features are grouped into figure and background * Proximity * Lines next to each other are grouped together * Similarity * Similar shapes are grouped together * Continuity * Sine graph with line through – You see it as a continuous sine function anyway * Connectedness * Dots connected by a line are grouped together

* What is the Necker cube? * Subjective contours created by the law of continuity * Perceived depth is also subject to interpretation * Cube created by our own perception

DEPTH PERCEPTION * Depth can be ambiguous or illusory on a flat image (3-d figure on a piece of paper) (e.g. retina) * Binocular Cues * Each eye sees a different view and the images are compare to determine where an object must be to create those images * Monocular Cues * Relative Size * Two objects of the same size, one is close and one is far, the further one appears smaller * Not always the case (Size-Distance Relationship) * Interposition or occlusion * A smaller object in the same X-Axis that is closer will appear a part of the larger, more distant object * Height in the plane * How high in a distant plane shows how far away the object is when compared to a closer object * What is the Size-Distance Relationship * Normally, more distant objects appear smaller * With the same RETINAL SIZE, the more distant object is larger * Illusions of Size? Based on Size-Distance relationship * Shepard illusion * Monster lower on in the picture appears as if it is smaller than the one chasing it towards the middle of the screen when they are in fact the same size * Ponzo illusion * The red bar towards the top of the road (further away) appears larger than the one that is almost directly below her * Muller-Lyer Illusion * The lines are the same length but they appear larger when the arrow tips point inward
CONTEXT
* How many legs on the elephant? * Appears to have more even though we know this is impossible * Culture as context * A woman sitting in front of a window will appear to East Africans as a woman balancing a box under her head and the rest of the family is sitting under a tree as opposed to being in some other location
PERCEPTUAL SET * Once you arrive at an interpretation of an image, that interpretation influences further analysis.

MEMORY ENCODING

Memory Encoding is a 3 stage process of Encoding, Storage, and Retrieval. * Automatic Encoding takes no practice, feels unlimited * Effortful Requires practice feels limited * Rehearsal is a process of Effortful encoding. * As you can see, it takes a lot less time to remember the more repetitions of a list you have.

What is the Serial Position Effect in memory? * FIRST & LAST items are recalled the most
What gets encoded into memory? * REMEMBER “M.I.O.” * Meaning * We generally remember meaning over details * MEMORY is best for meaning over imagery and sound * More meaning = deeper encoding = better memory * Imagery * Mental images can improve memory * MNEOMICS are methods for increasing memory by creating mental images. * What is the Method of Loci: * Think of a common trip * Think of 10 landmarks * Create a mental image of each item at the landmark * Remember list by imagining yourself making the trip * Organization * Memory has a capacity of 7 (+/-) 2 items. * Chunking * Placing items into groups or “chunks” like years of wars * Retrieval Cues

MEMORY: STORAGE & RETRIEVAL

What does this mean?
Information first goes through sensory memory, which is what you are seeing/hearing/experiencing with your senses. Then, THINKING about what you are seeing, brings that information into your SHORT-TERM OR WORKING memory, where it can be used by you. You can further encode that information into the LONG-TERM memory, where it can then be retrieved later, to be brought into your WORKING memory again for use.

SENSORY MEMORY
What was the sensory memory experiment by SPERLING? * Flashed 9 letters in about 50 milli-seconds. * Then asked to recall (about 44% of the letters are recalled) * What did this show? * That without time for rehearsal, memory appears to have limited capacity. * HOWEVER, when the words were flashed with a tone (an added sensory stimulus) recall was better! * This showed that Sensory Memory in fact has a large capacity. * When the letters were shown with a DELAYED tone * Sensory memory is shown to have FAST decay. * Over the course of 1 second, you go from recognizing 80% of the letters to 30% of the letters * What are the durations of sensory memory? * Ionic – (Sight) .5 Seconds long * Echoic – (Hearing) 3-4 Seconds Long * Hepatic – (Touch) Anywhere up to 1 second long.

Working Memory * Memory storage for information you are currently using (For example, a phone number) * It has a capacity of 7+ or – 2 items * Working Memory ALWAYS has this capacity * CHUNKING – Smaller items can be grouped into larger chunks * Then the new capacity is 7 + or – 2 chunks. * How long does Working Memory last? 20 Seconds * How does one eliminate rehearsal? * Flash 3 Consonants * Count backwords from 100 by 3 * 0-20 Second Delay * You now will not remember.

Long-Term Memory * How long does Long Term Memory last? Lasts from a few seconds to a lifetime

* Retention increases with practice, your recall over time will be better with more repetitions.

Physiology in memory?
What was Lashley’s rat maze experiment? * Taught rats to walk maze * Lesion’d (removing part of the cortex) various cortical areas. * Rats did NOT forget learned mazes * Showed there is NO MEMORY CENTER

There are some physiological contributions to memory * What are ‘synaptic changes?’ * Amount of neurotransmitter is released in some cells * The CEREBELLUM (located near the brain stem, which is attached to the spinal cord) STORES what type of memory? * Stores IMPLICIT (HOW-TO) memories * Riding a bike * The HIPPOCAMPUS of the LIMBIC SYSTEM CREATES what type of memory? * CREATES EXPLICIT (Facts & Figures) memories before they are sent to the cortex
Suppose you are given a puzzle, but your hippocampus is damaged. What are the effects? * You would be able to learn how to do the puzzle (implicit) but you would forget ever having played it (explicit).

RETRIEVAL * The ability to use stored information * From the long term memory brought to the working memory so that it may be used. * WHAT ARE RETRIEVAL CUES? * Items are stored in memory as an organized web, and upon thinking of a certain item in that web, it will trigger the retrieval of associated items * Example Red Fire Truck * WHAT IS PRIMING? * Associations that lead to retrieval. * Seeing or hearing the word rabbit retrieves the associated picture of a rabbit and primes the spelling of the spoken word “hare” * Questions on exams are meant to prime retrieval * More organized material will be retrieved better * Priming with context * Greater recall when the learning and testing contexts are the same * Example? * Scuba divers recall more words underwater if that is where they heard them. * Priming with Mood * You will recall more when you are in the same emotional state as the encoding * Forgetting * Though usually from bad encoding and storage, forgetting can result from retrieval failure. * PROACTIVE INTERFERENCE results from what? * Previously learned material interferes with the retrieval of new material * Proactive – OLD interferes with NEW. * RETROACTIVE INTERFERENCE results from what? * New material interferes with retrieval of old material * Retroactive – NEW interferes with OLD * Shows that without interfering events, recall is better after sleep as opposed to remaining awake.

Thinking: Problem Solving & Decision Making
Cognition - The processes associated with Thinking.

What are those processes associated with Cognition? * Problem Solving - Discovering what must be done to achieve a goal. * Decision Making – Evaluating known alternatives and making choices among them.

What are the two main ways to solve problems? * Algorithms: A series of steps guaranteed to succeed * Algorithms are inefficient & not always available * Heuristics: Strategy to succeed or a ‘rule of thumb’ * Heuristics are widely used, but can lead to errors * Scientists study these errors to reveal heuristics
What are the common problem solving errors? * Irrelevant information - We often assume that all numerical information is necessary * The phone book problem * Mental Set - We are mentally set on using strategies that worked in the past for similar problems * The conservation experiment * Functional Fixedness - We tend to perceive items in terms of how they are normally used. * Candle in a matchbook experiment. * Unnecessary Constraints - We impose limits that are not required. * The line continuation puzzle, you can go off the grid.
How do you overcome these errors? * Work backwards * Find an analogy * Change the representation

What are some decision making heuristics? * Representativeness – we focus on characteristics that are most representative of a problem and ignore statistical evidence that argues with your answer * Is Jack a Lawyer or a Plumber? * Availability – We assume that the events we recall are most probable. * After 9/11, people were wearier of flying even though plane hijackings are an extremely rare occurrence.

What are decision making biases and what is an example for each one? * What is framing Bias – How questions are asked or options are given influences are decision we are conservative with gains and risky with losses. * 70,000 students stricken with a disease – they are expected to all die. * Option A: 30,000 will be saved. or 1/3rd chance everyone will live and 2/3rd chance no one will live. * Option B: 40,000 will die. 1/3rd chance that no one will die, 2/3rd chance that everyone will die. * They would choose Option B. It’s riskier with losses and conservative with gains.

* What is an example of confirmation bias and what is it? * We seek evidence to confirm our initial opinions * A Doctor asking leading questions to confirm his initial suspicion that the patient has the flu.

INTELLIGENCE: Science & Society
Many consider intelligence to be academic aptitude: the ability to perform well in school & solve academic problems successfully.

What is intelligence according to Myers? * The ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations.

Who termed the G-FACTOR? What is it? * Charles Spearman. * General Intelligence or G-Factor - People with intelligence in one area tend to be successful in all areas.
Who advocated MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES and what did he say was evidence? Howard Gardner * MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES – Intelligence involves many different abilities. * Savant Syndrome – Low general intelligence but extreme ability in one area

Charles Spearman – G Factor – Generalized Intelligence.

Who argued that Gardner’s items are better considered talents than intelligences? * Sternberg and 3 intelligences * What did he propose? * 3 Testable Types of intelligence * Analytic: academic * Creative: novel solutions * Practical: everyday
Emotional intelligence is defined as… * People with high intelligence are not always better leaders, spouses or parents. * The ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions.

We have all taken an intelligence test.

In the 19th century, life course was determined by social class. * Psychologists concerned with Generalized human mind
In the 20th century, life course was determined by skills * Psychologists concerned with individual differences. Define Survival of the Fittest or Natural Selection: * CHARLES DARWIN – Weaker individuals die, allowing more ‘fit’ ones to produce more ‘fit’ babies. Darwin’s cousin, Francis Galton applied this to intelligence. He proposed testing intelligence, believing that intelligence was inherited – adults of high social standing have children who achieve high social standing. What is Eugenics? * Selective breeding to enhance (or eliminate) certain traits * Hitler Who developed the ‘First Modern Intelligence Test’? * ALFRED BINET – Stemmed from a need to have children of different abilities pinpointed so they are placed in accelerated classes. * Believed that children develop at different rates. * Distinguished Chronological Age (HOW OLD YOU ARE) from Mental Age (HOW FAR YOU HAVE DEVELOPED) Binet developed I.Q. or Intelligence Quotient. Binet’s Test limitations… * Binet only intended for his test to measure THE CHILD’s ABILITY TO PERFORM AT A PARTICULAR GRADE LEVEL (Aptitude) * MENTAL AGE UP TO 16 How was Binet’s test revised? * Stanford-Binet Test by Lewis Terman * Extended the age range of Binets test to adults * Reignited eugenics and helped establish immigration quotes * Currently in its 5th edition.

What are the most popular intelligence tests today and who developed them? * David Weschler * WISC: Weschler Intelligence Scale for Children * WAIS: Weschler Adult Intelligence Scale

To construct a test, what principles must the test adhere to? * Standardization – Meaningful standards/scale to place individuals in a group (e.g. mental age) * Reliability – Consistently yields same results. * Validity – Measures what it was intended to measure
Nature vs Nurture in intelligence?

Ethnic differences show that white Americans exceed Hispanics and African Americans * This is evidence of environment influences intelligence * infants have equal i.q. scores across all races, * white American I.Q. increased steadily through the 1900’s – this is assumed environment. * As opportunities equalize, so do I.Q. scores.

What two things can intelligence tests measure? * Aptitude – the ability for future success * Achievement – Previous success, learning

A test that is supposed to measure pure aptitude may also measure achievement, which would reflect opporunities, not just your abilities, and some use aptitude tests to justify racism, where the test itself may be an index of existing racism.

SOCIAL INFLUENCES
The rape and murder of Kitty Genovese, and the experiment in which an actor-member of a fake group discussion fakes a seizure in front of its unknowing participants, showed what? * Bystander Intervention – Individuals of a group are less likely to help someone in need

What effect does a group have on the feeling of responsibility? * Diffusion of Responsibility Effect – As group size increases, each individual of the group feels proportionately less responsible and is in turn less likely to help.
We help when… * …The benefits outweigh the costs – Social Exchange Effect * We help when we think we will feel good * When someone else helps * When we are not rushed * The person is similar to us * We are not in a big city * When we believe they are deserving of help * When there is a reward * When we feel guilt

Conformity

Describe Asch’s conformity experiment. What did it show? * “Confederates” with a real participant. They gave obviously wrong answers to simple questions. * Conformity is maximized when: * There are at least 3 other people * Our behavior is public * Group is unanimous * We admire the group * We feel incompetent * We have made no prior responses.
Normative Social Influence – We are driven to gain approval and not appear different. “Smoke, we all do it.”

Information Social Influence – We can learn from, and be swayed by, the opinions of others. “It will kill you.”

Obedience

What was Milgram’s Obedience Experiment? * Participant is assigned to be a teacher (T) in a fake memory experiment and the actor is assigned to be the learner. The learner will be asked questions and the teacher is instructed to shock the learner when the learner gets questions wrong. The experimenter instructs the participant. * Learner deliberately gives wrong answers. * Learner begs and screams and eventually collapses * The majority of subjects continued to obey and shock all the way up to the danger level, or to the end.

When is obedience maximal? * Commander nearby * Commander has status * Victim depersonalized * No role model for defiance.

What three processes influence groups? * Social Loafing – Contribute LESS in a group because we are less accountable when there are others to take responsibility. * Social Facilitation – Our performance on almost any task will change when others are around.

Notice the bell curves for the two functions that have separate values for arousal.

* Deindividuation – Individuals are more ANONYMOUS in a group. * Releases inhibitions * Weakens morals * Highlights the role of costumes

ATTRACTION

Physical attraction * We are most likely to feel a personal attraction to physically beautiful people. * The effects of physical beauty are clear on a hot or not scale – shown both attractive and unattractive * Attractive people were judged to be nicer, more successful, & happier in their relationships, based on a picture alone. * Freshman paired up with blind dates * Only physical beauty determined whether they liked their dates

Factors that influence attraction? * Proximity – We are most attracted to people who are near to us. One summer more than ½ of couples married within 16 blocks on their first date in Columbus, OH. * Familiarity – We like what is most familiar, and we are most familiar with those nearby. For example, 4 attractive women attended class for weeks, and students rated their beauty as being higher than students were not familiar with them over the course of a few weeks. * MERE EXPOSURE EFFECT – Attractiveness goes up the more familiar you are with that person. * Skipping class makes you ugly; going to class makes you hot… * Similarity – We like people who are similar to us… and society places similar people together. For example, dating websites try to match similar people together. * Grade school children prefer more similar playmates. * Academics, sports, race, socio-economic,religion. * Reciprocity – We like people who like us. This must be genuine.

What do people across the world value? * Mutual Attraction, Kindness, Intelligence, Dependability.

What do Men across the world value? * Youthfulness, Physical beauty * Men seek fertile partners, these are signs of fertility.

What do women across the world value? * Ambition, industriousness, social status, financial potential & resources * Women seek providers, and looks are a weaker sign of financial potential

What are some tactics of attraction? * Men display resources, sophistication, and strength * Women display makeup & jewelry, sexy clothes, grooming, and they act coy. * Both Males & Females * Flirt * Be Nice * Act promiscuous * Act submissive * Pretend to agree * Touch Liking vs Loving * Liking – Affection, respect, positive evaluation * Loving – Attachment, responsibility, need What is Sternberg’s love triangle? The left most column contains types of love. The other columns are what characterizes that love. Empty love is characterized by? ____________________________ Liking/Friendship is characterized by?________________________ Passionate?___________________________ Romantic?____________________________ Companionate?____________________________ Superficial?________________________ Consummate?________________________ Passionate love (Intense interest, sexual feelings, agony and ecstasy) * Created by AROUSAL, and thought about that arousal. I feel good, it’s you that makes me feel this way. * Passionate Love experiment * Males asked to walk across a high suspension bridge and a low safe bridge * High arousal and low arousal. Attractive woman meets the men to conduct a survey. * 1 in 3 called the woman on the high bridge * 1 in 20 called the woman on the low bridge. * So pick a high heart rate date for passion! Progresses to Companionate (warm feelings, trust, tolerant affection, interdependence) * Awareness: Variables such as proximity allow for awareness * Surface contact: Superficial meetings and discussions, where self-disclosure starts. * Mutuality: Self disclosure leads to shared ideas and empathy * Interdependence: reciprocal needs and responsibilities. Cognitive Development
Newborns show a preference especially for human voices, especially mom’s voice. They also show a preference for mom’s smell.
What is the Habituation Procedure? Present stimulus until infant becomes bored (habituates), present new stimulus, if infant regains interest, they noticed the difference.
Newborns are able to discriminate what five patterns?
-Presence, Number, Size, Contrast, Curvature
4 month olds?
-Position Orientation Shape
Piaget’s 4 stages of development
-Sensorimotor (Birth to 2 years) Experiencing the world through the senses and actions. Object permanence is recognizing that concealed objects still exist which is what infants younger than 6 months struggle with. Infants will ignore occluded toy, believing that it has disappeared. *At about 8 months, infants begin to recognize objects exist when we are not looking at them. They also have stranger anxiety.
-Pre-Operational – (2 to about 6-7 years) Representing things with words and images; use intuitive rather than logical reasoning. characterized by Egocentrism, Pretend Play, and Language development. Egocentrism is when CHILDREN YOUNGER THAN 7, when asked to report what the doll sees, children will report their own point of view.
-Concrete Operational – 7 to about 11 years, Thinking logically about concrete events; grasping concrete analogies and performing arithmetical operations. Conservation and Mathematical transformations. Children think that the taller of the two beakers of water (though they share the same volume) is more, thus they don’t know conservation.
-Formal Operational – 12 through Adulthood – Abstract Logic, Potential for mature moral reasoning.

Criticisms of Piaget:
Object Permanence- Even at 4 months (sensorimotor), infants will be surprised, and stare at, impossible events. Failure to lift the blanket may indicate poor motor development
Egocentricism- At 4, children can place a doll behind the walls that will hide it from the policemen. Failure to take another’s point of view for Piaget may indicate to complex a task.
Conservation- At 3-4, children can perform simple conservation problems. Failure may indicate a limited ability to count.

Social Development
Erickson’s Eight Stages of Psycho-Social Development * Infancy (birth to 1 year) has issues with Trust vs. Mistrust. If needs are dependably met, infants develop a basic sense of trust. * Toddlerhood (1 to 2 years) has issues with Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt. Toddlers learn to exercise will and do things for themselves or they doubt their abilities. * Preschooler (3 to 5 years) has issues with Initiative vs. guilt. Preschoolers learn to initiate tasks and carry out plans, or they feel guilty about efforts to be independent. * Elementary school (6 years to puberty) has issues with Competence vs. Inferiority – Children learn the pleasure of applying themselves to tasks, or they feel inferior. * Adolescence (Teen years into 20s) has issues with Identity vs. Role Confusion – Teenagers work at refining a sense of self by testing roles and then integrating them to form a single identity, or they become confused about who they are. * Young adulthood (20s to early 40s) has issues with Intimacy vs. isolation – Young adults struggle to form close relationships and to gain the capacity for intimate love, or they feel socially isolated. * Middle Adulthood (40s to 60s) has issues with Generativity vs. Stagnation – In middle age, people discover a sense of contributing to the world, usually through family and work, or they may feel a lack of purpose. * Late Adulthood (Late 60’s and up) has issues with Integrity vs. Despair - When reflecting on his or her life, the older adult may feel a sense of satisfaction or failure.
What is the #1 social goal in infancy? Developing a sense of attachment.
What are effects of positive attachment? Positive attachment: Children become independent, confident, outgoing, and emotionally responsive.
What are effects of negative attachment? Children can become shy, withdrawn, and occasionally speechless.
Mom and child come into novel play area, a secure child will do what? What feelings are likely to happen when mom returns after leaving the child? The secure child will explore and play happily. While both secure and insecure children are initially upset, the secure child will be happy when Mom returns.
Mom and child come into novel play area, an insecure child will do what? What feelings are likely to happen when mom returns after leaving the child? The insecure child will cling to mom and will be angry or ambivalent when Mom returns.
What 4 factors are important in creating attachment? * Body Contact. – Infants bond with the people they touch and cuddle. It has been assumed that this is linked to getting food. But it has to do with comfort, as shown by Harlow’s monkeys, who attached to the cloth mom instead of the wire mom. * Familiarity. – Mere exposure creates attachment. Imprinting – Ducks attach to anything present about 15 hours after birth. No critical period found for humans. * Temperament. – Child’s personality will affect attachment. Relaxed, cheerful, quiet: - Easy atttachments. Reactive, intense * Responsive Parenting – Attentive and sensitive to child’s needs. Promote secure, trusting attachment. Unresponsive parents will not promote secure attachment or a sense of trust.
It was assumed that attachment/body contact was linked to getting food, however we have learned since then that it is what?
What was Harlow’s monkey experiment?
Konrad Lorenz focused on ducks and the phenomenon known as?
Is there a critical period for imprinting (ducks-15 hours after birth imprint) for humans? NO
What kind of infant personality leads to easy attachment? Relaxed, cheerful quiet
What kind of infant personality leads to more difficulty with attachment? Reactive, intense, fidgety
What are qualities of responsive parents? Attentive, sensitive, promote secure, trusting attachment.
What are qualities of unresponsive parents? Neither attentive or sensitive, will not promote secure attachment or a sense of trust
Developing self-concept is the primary social goal of what? Childhood & adolescence.
Self-awareness happens between what ages? 15-18 months Sense of gender, personality, and skills typically develops at what age? 5 years
At what age does a stable self-concept emerge? 8-10 years
At what point in the lifespan do you starting exploring identities? (Trying different groups of friends, clubs, etc, where do I fit?) Adolesence
What are the four styles of parenting? Authoritarian, Authoritative, Permissive, Neglecting
A parent who is strict, demands obedience, and would likely respond with “because I said so” when asked why is most likely what style of parenting? Authoritarian.
A parent who is strict, but offers up an explanation for why the rule was put in place and allows exceptions at times are most likely what style of parenting? Authoritative
A parent, who is disengaged, may not pay attention to children’s’ needs is most likely practicing what type of parenting style? Neglecting
A parent who asks the child “how late would you like to stay out?” and submits to child’s desires is likely practicing what style of parenting? Permissive
What style of parenting is associated with self-reliant and competent children? Authoritative.
Adolescence-Adulthood
Adolescence is extending (in both males and females), it has increased from 7.2 to 12.5 years.
For females, puberty starts with breast development at 10 years and is considered to end with Beginning of menstruation.
For males puberty starts with Growth of penis and testes at 11-12 and is considered to end with beginning of ejaculation. 14 years.
What are primary sex characteristics? Structures that are necessary for reproduction
What are secondary sex characteristics? Non reproductive features (breasts, hips, body hair, deepened voice.
What is the adolescent health paradox? Adolescence is the healthiest and most resilient period in life, yet mortality increases 300% over childhood.
What is the part of the brain that develops early during adolescence and is responsible for the “I want” thoughts? Limbic System, Hypothalamus, Pituitary, Amygdala
What is the part of your brain that develops late in adolescence and is responsible for rational thought? Frontal Cortex
When morality follows personally perceived ethical principles, what moral developmental stage are they in? Postconventional Morality: In adults. When children show morality to avoid punishment or gain reward, what moral development stage are they in? Pre-conventional Morality – Before age 9, children show morality to avoid punishment or gain reward
When early adolescents follow social rules and laws that are upheld for their own sake, what moral development stage are they in? Conventional morality
When does physical performance (speed, strength endurance) peak at what age? Speed, strength and endurance peaks in the early to mid twenties.
After what age does hearing, distance perception, and smell diminish significantly? 70-80
Neural processes slow down significantly after what age? 60’s
At what age does it become dangerous to drive a car, due to motor ability decline? 70-74
What type of memory declines with age? Recall memory declines with age
What type of memory stays stables with age? Recognition memory
What emotions remain stable over old age? Life satisfaction and well being
Classical Conditioning
Learning how to connect two events is known as? Associative Learning
What are the two types of associative learning? Classical Conditioning, Operant Conditioning
Classical Conditioning examples: Water on snail associated with shock
When Mia gets back to the dormitory after jogging around the campus, she likes to take a quick shower before going to class. One morning while taking a shower she hears someone flushing a nearby toilet. Suddenly, extremely hot water comes rushing out of the showerhead and Mia experiences excruciating pain. After muttering a few obscenities, she continues showering. A few minutes later, Mia hears another toilet flush and he leaps out of the shower.

1. What is the unconditioned stimulus? The shower 2. What is the unconditioned response? Pain - Run 3. What is the conditioned stimulus? Toilet Flush 4. What is the conditioned response? Pain - Run

Molly was ecstatic when she learned her family was going to the state fair next weekend. When her family arrived at the state fair the temperature was in excess of 100 F, but Molly didn't care because she was finally there. Molly stopped and watched some clowns performing next to the carousel. As she watched the silly antics of the clowns with the carousel music playing in the background, Molly got more and more sweaty and uncomfortable. Eventually, she fainted from the heat. After that trip to the state fair, every time Molly hears carousel musical she feels a little dizzy.

1. What is the unconditioned stimulus? The heat 2. What is the unconditioned response? Dizziness 3. What is the conditioned stimulus? Carousel music 4. What is the conditioned response? Dizziness

What is acquisition? Acquisition is the initial stage in classical conditioning from repeated presentation of CS – UCS pair CS should precede UCS by approximately ½ sec.
What is extinction? CR disappears after repeated presentations of CS alone.
After a rest, conditioned stimulus will produce a conditioned response, which indicates that learning was retained, is known as? Spontaneous Recovery
“Little Albert” was originally conditioned to be scared of white rats, however he was ultimately scared of all white fluffy animals, this is an example of what? Generalization
When the subject only associates the unconditioned stimulus with the conditioned stimulus? Discrimination
There are exceptions to classical conditioning rules; two of these rules are taste aversion & Thinking and expectation
Usually you need repeated presence with a ½ second delay, however this has the ability to be conditioned after a one-time period. Taste aversion
Associations don’t always produce learning, there needs to be no thinking and expectation
Operant Conditioning
Learning to associate behavior and consequence is defined as Operant Conditioning
Learned association between stimulus 1 and stimulus 2, leads to association between stimulus 1 and response – Classical Conditioning
Demonstrated by cats escaping boxes by handling latches leading them to food, what is E.L Thorndike’s Law of Effect? Rewarded behavior will recur. Eventually, time required to escape the puzzle boxes drastically decreased
What psychologist gets much of the credit for operant conditioning? BF Skinner. He extended Thorndike’s Thinking and methods.
Process of producing desired responses that use method of successive approximations? Shaping
What is the difference between positive and negative reinforcement? Positive reinforcement is adding a desirable stimulus. Getting a hug, receiving a paycheck. Negative Reinforcement – Remove an aversive stimulus. Fastening Seatbelt to turn off beeping.
What is the difference between primary and secondary reinforcement? Primary reinforcement is immediate and unlearned like receiving food. Secondary is acquired through learning. E.g. Money.
Which is more effective, immediate small rewards or delayed large reward?
-Immediate: Even small rewards can have a strong effect when presented immediately. Strong response from small immediate rewards, weak affect large rewards.
•Ratio Schedules:
–Fixed Ratio — Reinforcement given after a fixed number of responses
–Variable Ratio — Reinforcement given after a variable number of responses.
•Interval Schedules:
–Fixed Interval — Reinforcement given to the first response after a fixed amount of time.
–Variable Interval — Reinforcement given to the first response after a variable amount of time.
What is the difference between positive and negative punishment? Positive punishment = Administer adversive stimulus. Such as spanking. Negative Punishment: Withdraw a desirable stimulus. Revoked Driver’s license.
Between reinforcement and punishment, which has criticisms that make it a lesser option? Punishment. Because you teach people how to avoid punishment, not to do the right thing, May lead to anger and aggression and the desired behavior is not taught
Learning without reinforcement is known as? Latent Learning
What is over justification in terms of operant conditioning? Rewarding enjoyable tasks may produce disinterest.

Motivation
What are the three types of motivation? Instinct, Drive Reduction, Optimum Arousal
How is motivation defined? Motivation is a need or desire that energizes behavior and directs it towards a goal.
Type of motivation where behaviors that are automatic, unlearned, and uncontrolled Instinctive
Physiological needs create a drive to satisfy that need. There is a drive to satisfy the drive for food. You want to eat so you don’t feel hungry, so you eat. You’re motivated by Drive Reduction.
What is optimum arousal? Everyone has a preferred level of arousal that they are motivated to attain.
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Motives shows that certain motives have priority, what is the order of these priorities?
-Physiological Needs (Hunger Thirst)
-Safety Needs (Need to feel that the world is organized and predictable; need to feel safe, secure, and stable)
-Belongingness and love needs (Need to love and to be loved, to belong and be accepted
-Esteem – Self esteem, achievement, competence, and independence
-Self-actualization needs Need to live up to one’s fullest and unique potential
Some people are not motivated by food, such as people with eating disorders such as Anorexia Nervosa & Bulimia Nervosa
Type of eating disorder that results from severe dieting – Anorexia Nervosa, 90% female, 1 in 200 females
Eating disorder that results from binge/purge eating – Bullimia 5% college males, 19% college females. May be genetic.
Female body image compared to male body image
-Women see themselves as fatter than ideal. Men do not.
What three things drive sexual motivation?
Physiological, environment, psychological

Sexual Response Cycle: Phase | Physiological Response | Excitement | Blood flows to genitals. Vagina expands & lubricates. Penis enlarges. | Plateau | Sensitivity & Excitement peak. Breathing, pulse & blood pressure increase. | Orgasm | All-body muscle contradictions. Maximum breathing, pulse, & blood pressure. Sexual release. | Resolution | Blood leaves genitals. Male goes through refractory phase — unable to orgasm for minutes to days. |
Gender differences in sex - 80% of adult store customers are male.
What is the difference between external and imagined stimuli? External Stimuli – The encironment influences sexual motivation through erotic stimuli. Imagined Stimuli – Dreams and fantasies can be a very strong sexual motivator. 9
Which pornography produced increased aggression? Why?
Highly erotic pornography Arousal + negative feelings = negative/aggressive behavior
Achievement
What is achievement motivation? A drive to succeed
Characteristics of someone with high achievement motivation. What types of tasks will they choose? Individuals with high achievement motivation are persistent, energentic, active, and disciplined when approaching challenging tasks.
Characteristics of someone with low achievement motivation. What types of tasks will they choose? Characteristics of someone with low achievement motivation will choose tasks that are either very easy or very challenging.
Infants have instinctive drive to exert change on their environment
Extrinsic is the drive to succeed based on desire to obtain rewards such as money, grades, favors
Intrinsic is the drive to succeed based on a love of what you are doing and a desire to do your best
Which is a stronger motivation, extrinsic or intrinsic? Intrinsic
Throughout development, how does achievement motivation progress? Infancy Infants have an instinctive drive to exert change on their in Early Childhood Young children like to imitate the effective behaviors of other people Adolescence-Adulthood Internal Values channel energy toward excellence
How do parents encourage high achievement motivation in their children?
Encouraging Independence Teaches a cognitive source for success (Success=one’s efforts).
Employing praise Teaches an emotional source for success (Success= good feelings).
Field of psychology dedicated to creating productive work environments Industrial/Organizational Psychology.
How do Industrial/Organizational psychologists foster high achievement in employees? Cultivate intrinsic motivation, attend to motives, set clear goals, choose an appropriate leadership style, believe in people. Ways to Foster High Achievement | How? | Cultivate Intrinsic Motivation | * Trigger Curiosity – Interesting tasks will be intrinsically enjoyable * Extrinsic rewards only work when presented and undermine intrinsic motivation | | Find what individuals are motivated by :Achievement – Novel tasksRecognition – AttentionAffiliation – group activitiesPower - competitionEx. (Motivated by recognition, give them attention) | Set Clear Goals | Specific goals promote high achievement. Failure to meet clear, reasonable goals will be attributed to a lack of effort, rather than external causes. | Choose appropriate leadership styles | * Task leadership- Set standards and goals. * Social Leadership- Promote teamwork | Believe in people | Two Assumption options of employers: * Their employees are lazy & error prone * Their employees are motivated to succeed. – This attitude promotes high achievement motivation |
Of the two assumptions that employers make, which is more likely to promote high achievement motivation?
Their employees are motivated to succeed
How do you motivate yourself?
-Do what you love
-Associate with people who foster success
-Set clear goals
-Believe in yourself and avoid feelings of unworthiness
PERSONALITY
What exactly is personality? An individual’s characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting.
Psychoanalytic Theory: What is it? Who started it? Sigmund Freud’s patients suffered from disorders that could not be explained in terms of purely physical causes. He developed the first theory of personality, the psychoanalytic theory, based on unconscious (usually sexual) motives.
How does the Unconscious Mind act and operate? The mind is like an iceberg, mostly underwater. Below the surface lies the unconscious mind.
What are Unconscious Motives? Personality emerges as our Ego balances (or not) our drive for pleasure (Id) with our morals (Superego)
Ego – Executive mediator in the conscious mind
Superego – Internalized ideals in the preconscious/subconscious mind
Id – Unconscious psychic energy – Unconscious mind
Defense Mechanisms of the mind – The Ego protects us against uncomfortable (as defined by the Superego) urges of the Id. 1. Repression – Eliminating uncomfortable urges from consciousness. (Ignoring homosexual urges) 2. Regression – Reverting to childlike behavior instead of dealing impulses maturely. (Running home to mom after fighting with spouse.) 3. Reaction Formation – Compulsively acting out the opposite of one’s urges. (Excessive piety to hide sinfulness) 4. Projection – Ascribe your own weaknesses or urges to someone else. (Believing you were seduced by the person you had an affair with.) 5. Rationalization – Seeking alternate examples for your own failings. (Justifying medical errors by pointing out that the patient would die anyway.) 6. Displacement – Directing urges to safer targets. (Yelling at your kids when you are angry at your boss.)
What is trait perspective? – A more behavior-oriented perspective. * Traits are persistent patterns of behavior. Your personality IS the way you act. (Friendly, moody, honest etc.)
How many traits? – Allport & Odbert (1936) identified almost 18,000 words representing traits.
Hippocrates contributed to the field of psychology by identifying 4 traits that he believed were related to excesses of bodily fluids. (ca. 400 BC) 1. Sanguine a. Cheerful, active b. Too much blood 2. Melancholic c. Gloomy d. Too much black bile 3. Choleric e. Angry, violent f. Too much yellow bile 4. Phlegmatic g. Calm, passive h. Too much phlegm
Eysenck’s 2-Dimensional Model suggested by Hans and Sybil Eysenck suggested what? That personality could be reduced to two dimensions: Emotional stability & extraversion.
Introverted – Unstable – Extraverted – Stable
These two dimensions divide personality into Hippocrates’ 4 groups
Melancholic, Choleric, Phlegmatic, Sanguine In the Modified Sensation Seeking Scale * 12+ Trues = High Sensation Seeker – High tolerance for stress, difficulties in school, poor health habits * Thrill Seeking adventure – Risky Behavior * New experiences – Alternative lifestyles & friends * Low inhibition – increased drug use & sexual activity * Susceptible to boredom – fear of monotony or repetition * 9-11 Points = Moderate sensation seeker * <9 points = low sensation seeker
What are the “big five” basic traits that appear in people across cultures * Conscientiousness Organized Careful Disciplined Disorganized Careless Impulsive * Agreeableness Soft hearted Trusting Helpful Ruthless Suspicious Uncooperative * Neuroticism Calm Secure Self-satisfied Anxious Insecure Self-pitying * Openness Imaginative Preference for variety Practical Preference for routine Confoming * Extraversion – Sociable Fun loving Affectionate Retiring Sober Reserved
Consistency – Traits tend to be consistent over time, especially in adults
Abnormal Traits
What is used to assess abnormal Traits? * Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) is used to assess abnormal traits such as: Depression, Paranoia, Psychopathic deviancy
Consistency as a Trait * People act differently across situations, suggesting that traits are not real. But, perhaps our tendency to act consistently across situations is a 6th trait.
Self-Monitoring – Do you alter your behavior to situations? 1. I can look anyone in the eye and tell a lie with a straight face (if it is for a good purpose). a. True = High self-monitoring 2. I can only argue for ideas which I already believe b. False = High Self-monitoring
THE PERSON IN PERSONALITY
How is the person defined? The person is the fluid and organized experience of the body and environment, directed by one’s values and goals.
What is the Social Cognitive perspective? – Individuals behave differently in different environments. Albert Bandura emphasized our personality is an interaction between ourselves and our social environment.
How is Reciprocal Determinism different from behaviorist trait theory?- Reciprocal Determinism unlike the behaviorist trait theory, the environment influences, and is influenced by person and behavior. Friendly people create friendly environments, which elicit friendly behavior. BehaviorEnvironmentPerson
What is Personal Control? – Our sense of control over our environment has a significant effect on our personality. Nursing home patients given control over houseplants and scheduling were more active and healthy.
Locus of Control as a Trait? – Your perceived locus of control is stable and general.
-Internal locus of control – You believe you are in control of events in your life.
-External Locus of control – You believe your life is governed by outside forces
People who have Internal Locus of Control Traits 1. Are better in school. 2. Are less depressed. 3. Cope with stress better. 4. Take more control over their lives.
Learned Helplessness – Acquired external locus of control
Uncontrollable bad events Perceived lack of controlGeneralized helpless behavior
THE LEARNED HELPLESSNESS EXPERIMENT
DOGS PLACED IN SHUTTLE BOX WILL JUMP TO OTHER SIDE WHEN SHOCKED ON ONE SIDE. DOGS WHO WERE PREVIOUSLY SHOCKED AND RESTRAINED WILL NOT JUMP OVER TO THE OTHER SIDE.
Humanistic Perspective – Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers - Introduced the needs of the person. Emphasizes healthy people and their quest for personal growth.
Humanistic criticisms of:
Psychoanalytic perspective - Too negative, emphasizes unhealthy people.
Trait perspective – Too sterile, assumes everyone with a given trait is the same
Social – Cognitive perspective – Emphasizes the environment over the person
Maslow’s Hierarchy
Self Actualization (Need to live up to one’s fullest and unique potential) needs are humanistic.
Belongingness and Love (Need to love and be loved, to belong and be accepted; need to avoid loneliness and alienation) needs are social-cognitive.
Physiological needs (Need to satisfy hunger and thirst) needs are Psychoanalytic.
What is Self-Actualization? It is reaching your full potential – achieved by 1% of the population. Maslow’s ideas were supported by his study of famous people.
Self-Actualized People are independent and autonomous. They accept themselves and others, with their shortcomings and without prejudice. They focus on problems outside of themselves. They transcend their environment rather than cope with it.
Self-Esteem is the core of humanistic psychology. Self-esteem (a positive self concept) is necessary for self-actualization.
Benefits of Self-Esteem – People with high self-esteem are less depressed, perform better at work, and are healthier and happier.
What is Self-Serving Bias? – We protect our self-esteem and our mental health by taking credit for success and avoiding responsibility for failure.
Carl Rogers spoke from what perspective, and what did he say Self-esteem and Self-actualization require? Humanistic perspective.
1. Genuineness – We need people around us who are open, trusting, and without pretense in order to be open with ourselves.
2. Acceptance – We need people around us who accept, love, and respect us even despite our shortcomings, in order to love ourselves unconditionally.
3. Empathy- We need people around us who can sense and understand our hurt and pleasure as if they were us, in order to accept unconditional love from others.
These are soil water and sunshine of personal growth.
What were humanists criticized for? 1. Emphasizing “mythical” figures 2. Being vague about self-actualization and self-esteem 3. Pandering by telling people what they want to hear
PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS
What is the ratio of people that experience a psychological disorder during their lifetime? 1 in 3

How many people worldwide currently suffer? 450 million

What are the lifetime rates for the following disorders? Know which are higher and which are more uncommon. * Anxiety Disorder – 28.8% * Mood Disorder – 20.8% * Substance Use Disorder – 14.6% * Schizophrenia 1.5%

To be considered a disorder, what criteria must the person’s behavior exhibit? * The three D’s * DEVIANT * Must violate society’s standards. Homosexuality is no longer considered deviant. * DISTRESSFUL * Must upset the person. In many instances, hearing voices causes distress. However, cultures that practice ancestor worship, hearing voices is not distressful * DYSFUNCTIONAL * Behavior must interfere with one’s ability to lead a healthy life. Substance abuse disorder emerges when alcohol use becomes dysfunctional

What were some ancient treatments of psychological disorders? What were the causes determined to be? * Causes were considered to be divine, diabolical, magical, or humoral. * Treatments included * Trephination – Boring holes into the skull * Exorcism * Castration * Mutilation * Transfusion with animal blood

Who first recognized that madness was an illness, not possession by demons? Phillipe Pinel.

What led to the discovery of medical (physiological) causes of psychological disorders? * Untreated syphilis will induce dementia. In the 1800’s, 20% of mental hospital patients suffered from syphilis induced dementia. This link led doctors to seek medical causes to psychological disorders.

Define the medical (Bio) model of treating psychological disorders as diseases: 1. Etiology – Causes of the disorder 2. Diagnosis – Identification of the disorder and discrimination against other disorders 3. Treatment – Prescribed drugs of therapy 4. Prognosis – Forecast of changes

How has the medical (Bio) model been criticized? * The MEDICAL (Bio) MODEL CRITICISMS: * Labeling – The label mentally ill may elicit stereotypes, or some self-fulfilling prophecy (Alcoholics resign themselves to drinking) because they are labeled * Circular explanations – A diagnosis (e.g. Anxiety Disorder) is made solely on the basis of symptoms (Anxiety). * Passive patient role – Focuses on the therapist healing the patient while the patient waits for healing, rather than actively improving their lives.

Are people suffering from mental illness... * Personally weak? No. * Incurable? No. * Dangerous? No. * Abnormal? No.

The Bio-Psycho-Social Perspective broadened the Medical (Bio) Model to include what two influences? * Psychological, Social * The __________________ classifies over 400 disorders. * Diagnostic and Statiscal Manual of Psychological Disorders (4th Ed.) or DSM IV.

What 5 dimensions are disorders based on? * Clinical Syndromes (The diagnosis, e.g. depression, anxiety) * Personality or Developmental Disorders (Antisocial Personality) * Physical Condition (Physical illness may impact mental health) * Psychosocial Stressors (unemployment, grieving) * General Functioning

ANXIETY Generalized anxiety disorder – continually tense and nervous in the absence of a particular threat Panic Disorder – Sudden attacks of overwhelming fear, often confused with a heart attack * Can lead to agoraphobia, fear of public places * Acrophobia — Heights * Agoraphobia — Public places * Claustrophobia — Closed-in places * Coulrophobia — Clowns * Dentophobia — Dental work * Lachanophobia — Vegetables * Ophidiophobia — Snakes * Phobophobia — fear of Phobias

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder – Uncontrollable repetitive thoughts (obsessions) or behaviors (compulsions). Affects 1 in 50 adults. * COMPULSIVE behavior is actual acting out to relieve the anxiety of the obsession

Some common obsessions * Hurting People * Sexual acts * Death or dying * Personal failure
Some common compulsions * Excessive hand washing * Cleaning clean items * Hair items * Rituals (e.g. touching walls, counting)

DEPRESSION & SCHIZOPHRENIA
Mood Disorders are common class of disorders characterized by emotional extremes (highs or lows)

What are the two major types of MOOD DISORDERS? * Major Depressive Disorder, Bipolar disorder

What is the “common-cold” of psychological disorders? * Major depressive disorder – 2+ weeks of persistent sadness and despair

Symptoms of depression * Loss of interest in pleasurable activities * Less active, more tired * Difficulty sleeping * Feelings of unworthiness * Anxiety or irritability * Slow thinking, decision making, talking * Substance use

What is the major difference between bipolar disorder and major depressive disorder? * Bipolar disorder has periods of mania – abnormally elevated mood.

Bipolar disorder may or may not have periods of depression, and the mood swings may be gradual or abrupt

Van Gogh was known for having bipolar depression.

Symptoms of Bipolar disorder * Depressive Episodes in the same nature of Major Depressive Disorder * Manic Episodes * Feelings of euphoria, excitement, self confidence * Hyperactivity and restlessness * Increased sex drive * Racing thoughts * Tendency to make grand, unattainable plans * Harmful effects of Mania * Aggressiveness * Vain and arrogant * Insubordinate * Irresponsible purchases or commitments * Serious risks

Your likelihood of depression is increased if your fraternal twin experiences depression and even higher for identical twins.

Females are most susceptible to depression

Brain activity rises in manic states and falls in depressive states

Depressive episodes are linked to low levels of what neurotransmitter? * Serotonin – mood and memory
Manic episodes are linked to high levels of? * Norepinephrine provides increased energy

Social Causes of depression * Stable – “I’ll never get over this” * Global – “Without my partner, I can’t seem to do anything right” * Internal – “Our breakup was all my fault” * BOOM Depression * Depressed people make Stable, global, & internal attributions about stressful events and this leads to depression.
You will recall more when you are in the same emotional state as during the encoding.

Schizophrenia is also known as “Split Mind”, individuals with schizophrenia often lose contact with reality. It is characterized by disintegrated thinking and emotional responses. Worldwide life rates: 1.5% * Symptoms include * Irrational thought * Inappropriate emotions and behavior * Lack of hygiene * Hallucinations * Social withdrawal * Repetitive movements * Catatonia * The artists rendition of a cat was done by an artist with Schizophrenia

The thought and speech patterns by a person with Schizophrenia include * Delusions: False beliefs * Commonly delusions of grandeur or persecution * Speech * World salad: may be unintelligible * Quickly jump between thoughts

Subtypes of Schizophrenia * Paranoid – Delusions of persecution or grandeur * Disorganized – Deterioration of adaptive behavior * Incoherence * Emotional indifference * Catatonic – Random movements or immobility * Undifferentiated – anyone not fitting into other categories

Parenting is no longer considered a cause of schizophrenia

Excess dopamine linked to schizophrenia

Shrinkage in frontal lobes may cause problems with attention and reason

Stress seems to trigger and worsen schizophrenic episodes

Stress
How is stress a good thing? It helps us avoid danger but can lead to illness
People with the most stress were more vulnerable when exposed to a cold virus
Can stress lead to heart disease? Stress increases risk factors for heart attacks. Ex. Cholesterol and clotting speed increases in accountants from January through March. (Tax Season)
Stress and people personalities Type A: Stressed, aggressive Type B: Relaxed, easygoing 9 Year study of stress and heart disease, nearly 10% of men had heart attacks; none of them were Type B.

Other health problems that may occur from Stress: Ulcers, Asthma, Headaches, Back pain, Skin disorders, arthritis, periodontal disease, menstrual discomfort
Stress vs Stressors
Stressors are a difficult or challenging event
Stress is the interpretation and experience of stressors
Stressor => Appraisal => Response
Ex. Math test => Thought (challenge) => Aroused (focused)
Common Stressors – Weight, Family health, price increases, home maintenance, too much to do, losing things, yard work, investments/taxes, crime, physical appearance
What are the four types of stressors? * Frustration – Something that interferes with your goals. * Traffic * Excessive noise * Unrequited love * Low grades * Change – Any change in your life will produce stress * These changes can be positive or negative * Pressure – Expectations on your behavior * Academic Performance * Job performance * Fitting in socially * Parental standards * Conflict – Having to choose among incompatible options
Least to most stressful * Approach-Approach: * 2 Good Options * Approach-Avoidance: * Options with pros and cons * Avoidance-Avoidance * 2 bad options
What are some of the physiological reactions to stress? * Phase 1: - Alarm reaction (mobilize resources) * Phase 2: - Resistance (Cope with stressor) * Phase 3: - Exhaustion (reserves depleted)
Psychological Reactions? * Anxiety * Fear * Anger * Annoyance * Sadness * Guilt * Shame * Envy
Behavioral Reactions? * Giving Up * Learned Helplessness * Social withdrawal * Self-indulgence * Create satisfaction through shopping, eating, drinking, etc. * Striking out at others * Physically or verbally * Defensive mechanisms * Emotional shields * Denial – Pretending it’s not true * Fantasy – Imaginary achievements * Undoing – Trying to make up or atone for your actions * Overcompensation – Covering up weakness by emphasizing strengths in other areas
What are some Constructive Coping Mechanisms to deal with Stress * Confront problems * Be realistic * Inhibit disruptive emotions * Ensure physical health
How does exercise affect stress? * Lowers blood pressure * Raises serotonin * Replaces depression with arousal * Physical relaxation * Sense of accomplishment
Can supportive people reduce stress? Yes * Boosts self-esteem * Outlet for emotions * Relaxation * Promote good health habits * Improved immune function Relaxation reduces stress * Daily relaxation techniques can reduce stress * ½ nursing home patients instructed to mediate * ½ received no instruction * 3 years later… * ¼ non-meditators died * 0 meditators died
What did Benson advocate? Relaxation
Benson’s relaxation procedure – Developed for cardiology patients 1. Sit quietly and comfortably with eyes closed 2. Concentrate on, and relax, all muscles from the feet to the head 3. Attend to breathing through nose 4. Say a word to yourself with each breath 5. Continue for 10-20 minutes 6. Wait a few minutes after opening eyes
PSYCHOTHERAPY
There are 4 main theories of INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES
Psychoanalytic
Trait (Behavioral)
Social – Cognitive
Humanistic
In the 1950’s, most mental health care was done in hospitals. * Hospitalization contributed to psychological disorders
In 1963, JFK was the first president to speak out on psychiatric care and advocated deinstitutionalization * Since then… * Length of stay fell to 1/7th * # of patients dropped to 1/6th * Prior to the 1970’s, homeless males: Alcoholic and unskilled * 83% of the homeless in Boston were male.
% seeking help * Schizophrenia – 46% * Mood disorders – 31% * Anxiety disorders – 20% * Substance abuse – 13%
You should seek help when something interferes with healthy, happy living. * Depression for 2+ weeks * Mood swings * Fears * Self-destructive behavior * Alcohol or drug use * Hopelessness * Thoughts of suicide * School or work difficulties
Psychotherapy is defined as an emotionally charged, confiding interaction between a trained, sanctioned therapist and someone suffering a psychological disorder.

Therapy responds to the theories of individual differences.
Psychoanalysis – Sigmund Freud * First formal psychotherapy, developed by Sigmund Freud. * Psychological problems originate from unconscious impulses and conflicts, the goal is to bring those feelings into consciousness where they can be addressed * Free Association – Long Sessions where patient speaks without direction. Therapist seeks clues to the unconscious, such as resistance and transference. * Resistance – Touchy on a topic, avoiding a topic * Transference – Patient develops strong feelings toward therapist * Not simply feelings of love or of hate * Psychodynamic Therapy – Modern version of psychoanalysis * Face to face and shorter duration than psychoanalysis
What type of therapy deals with Free association? Psychoanalysis

Humanistic Therapy * Promotes growth and self-actualization by increasing self-awareness and self-esteem * Emphasizes: * Present & Future * Conscious Experience * Personal Responsibility * Person Centered Therapy – Carl Rogers * Therapist provides * GENUINENESS * ACCEPTANCE * EMPATHY * Active listening * Therapist listens while echoing, restating, and clarifying the patient’s thinking and acknowledging expressed feelings. * This is a skill we can all use to improve our relationships. When conversing, you should paraphrase, invite extension, and mirror feelings.
Carl Rogers used what type of therapy to provide genuineness, acceptance and empathy to people who needed it * Person-centered therapy, part of humanistic therapy.

Behavior Therapy

* Behaviors, not feelings, are the problem. * Uses CONDITIONING to replace troublesome thoughts and behaviors with healthy ones. * EXPOSURE THERAPY * Expose patients to things that upset them. * Repeated exposure in a controlled setting, anxiety lessens. * SYSTEMATIC DESENSITIZATION Therapy – A type of exposure therapy for fear * Gradually approach a fearful situation or PHOBIA
Cognitive Therapy * Assumes thinking leads to emotions * Changing our thinking may improve certain disorders such as depression or anxiety * RATIONAL-EMOTIVE THERAPY – A type of Cognitive Therapy * Therapist aggressively “talks the patient out” of self-defeating thoughts.

EVALUATING PSYCHOTHERAPY
89% of clients are at least fairly satisfied. * Criticisms: * Clients start therapy in crisis * Clients need to justify therapy * Clients tend to like therapist * Experiment: * Despite positive results from juveniles in therapy, untreated juveniles had slightly fewer problems.

Therapist’s perceptions – obviously they consider therapy effective * Satisfied clients return to therapist * Dissatisfied clients simply switch to another therapist

Time heals all wounds * Eysenck * 2/3 of non-psychotic clients improved * 2/3 of untreated patients improved

Of Treated People * 80% improve
Untreated
* 50% improve

Which therapy is best? * All are equally effective, but certain therapies are more effective for certain disorders
PHOBIAS are best treated by BEHAVIORAL therapy
DEPRESSION is best treated by COGNITIVE therapy

What type of client benefits most from therapy? Clients who are intelligent, successful, and motivated are positively disposed toward therapy.

How does therapy help? What common themes do they Share? * Hope * Fresh perspective * Empathy

What type of therapy advocates the treating of disorders with drugs or other medical procedures? * Bio-medical therapy * Drug therapy is the most common biomedical therapy * 3 Types * Antipsychotic – Schizophrenia (Clozapine, Thorazine) * Antianxiety – Reduce Anxiety (Xanax, Ativan) * Antidepressant – Depression (Prozac, Zoloft, Paxil) Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs)