1) Why have some African countries (e.g., Nigeria, Congo-Kinshasa, and Sudan) experienced severe inter-communal and ethnic conflicts whereas others (e.g., Botswana, Mali, and Tanzania) have not?
The reason for the ethnic divide is due to the undemocratic leadership or lack of leadership in the countries. Leaders gained power through the creation and separation of various ethnic groups. People chose to part take in different ethnic groups in order to receive the needed resources to survive. The government focused on short-term goals rather than long term planning. As a consequence, these leaders lost legitimacy through their weak economy which in turn leads to the rebellion against the government. Nigeria has about 48 different ethnic groups. During elections, the different languages keep many of the people from receiving a clear message. In Congo-Kinshasa there was a kleptocratic president by the name Mobutu Sese Seko who was overthrown by Laurent Kabila. He kept the country in poverty and contributed the the deaths of the Tusis by the Hutus. This ethnic war was responsible for more deaths that WWII.
In Sudan, the Janjaweed went over the local people to terrorize. People of Darfur were driven to camps in Chad. Death toll 400,000. Sudanese government claim that only 20,000 people have died. Civil war turned into ethnic cleansing. Exterminating a whole group is known as genocide. The International Criminal Court just issued an arrest warrant for Al-Bashir.

Botswana is the only country to have maintained liberal democracy since independence by having an election every five years. It is known as the country who has come closest to an established democracy. They have successfully accommodated the peasantry by maintaining a multi-party political systems. The same party wins in every election. There is little doubt that inequality exists due to the foundations for class politics. Known as one of the fastest growing economies in the country.
Mali is considered a peaceful nation. After a long period of one-party rule, a 1991 coup led to the writing of a new constitution and the establishment of Mali as a democratic, multi-party state. About half the population live below the international poverty line of US$1.25 a day. Ninety percent of the country is Muslim.
Tanzania has a national language of Swahili and has never had a civil war. The nationalism pursued by the Tanzania government had at its heart similar goals, other brands of nationalism found elsewhere on the continent. They wanted to build national unity and to foster economic development. Unity was very important for the stability of the country because it had more than 120 different ethnic groups. Aim to enhance the unity generated by the independence campaign. Julius Nyere strongly encouraged his people to refer to themselves as “Tanzanians.” Little ethnic conflict since the years of independence. The country has a habit of a two-term presidency.