I.A.
The text, “Fujiwara and Murakami Genji as Assistants to Emperors” was written by Chikafusa, a couple of years after the Period Kamakura Japan (1180 to 1133) and went into the Kenmu Restoration period. This period was marked by the rise of militarism that attempted to make Japan a centralized government. During this time the imperial line remained unchallenged and exercised a vast amount of power. In 1333, the Kamakura shogunate was overthrown by warrior forces and Go-Daigo became the emperor . Go-Daigo belonged to a branch of the Fuijiwara house. He believed that the overthrow of the shogunate was a sign to revive what he believed was the most efficient form of government, the direct imperial rule. This period marked by imperial restoration was called “Kenmu Restoration” and lasted until 1336. As competition for power and land rose, the government was unable to stabilize the country. Two key figures Nitta Yoshida and Ashikaga Takauji were the faces to the struggle for power. Since they could not reach consensus Japan was split in two and the “War Between the Northern (Kyoto) and the Southern (Yoshino) Court,” began. Chikafusa did not play a major role in the Kenmu Restoration but did rally for support for the Southern Court among the eastern warriors. Coming from a high-ranking noble family and prominent minister at court, Chikafusa wrote was the author of Jinnō Shōtōki. This work, also known as “Chronicle of the Legitimate Succession of Divines Sovereigns,” was written in 1339 in an attempt to attract support from eastern warriors. This work was both for historical and political purposes. Many historians believe that this work was an effort to argue the legitimacy of the Southern Court.
The text “Fujiwara and Murakami Genji as Assistants to Emperors” can be found in the Jinnō Shōtōki and Chikafusa talks about the rise of the Fujiwara house to high ranks in the imperial government. He attributes the rise to the Sun Goddess who had given them the mandate to assist the throne of the Murakami Genji because of their ties with Emperor Murakami and the virtue shown by Murakami Genji ministers in the past. Chikafusa believed the approval of the Sun Goddess guaranteed the success of the ruling family forever. The Sun Goddess was a god of Shinto whom was believed to be the primary protectors of the country. By writing this text, Chikafusa was attempting to show the descent of the Fujiwara clan as well the as share the message of their right to assist the emperor. Chikafusa was also attempting to point out the importance faith in the mandate throughout the land and thus gain support.
This text is relevant not only throughout the Kenmu Restoration and the Kamakura Japan but also serves to the identity of Japan. In this text, one is able to see how the Shinto still played an important role in the shift of powers and was used as a strong weapon to legitimize the country. While the belief in a non-worldly mandate was still strong across Japan, Chikafusa emphasize the importance of virtue while in office and those who were not virtuous had faced a terrible future.
I.B.
“The Mean by Chapter and Phrase (Zhongyong Zhangju), Chapter 1” was a text written by Zhu Xi during the Song Period which ranged from the years 960 to 1279. This period did not emerge as a source of power or stability but it did, however, revived the Confucian learning and thrived itself in the spread of education throughout China. Academies during the Song period increased dramatically allowing more people to obtain an education that emphasized the Confucian ways. This Song Confucian Revival, also known as Neo-Confucianism, brought with it an increased interest in history. Many historical accounts were written by leading Song personalities.
Among these Song personalities was Zhu Xi who was a student of history whom related the classics to current times and learned from them. He had successfully passed the jinshi, the highest examination, at the age of eighteen. Zhu Xi played a major role in the Neo-Confucianism period reviving the elements of the Learning of the Way. He was not just passionate about his educational goals but also about his social and educational programs.
In “The Mean by Chapter and Phrase (Zhongyong Zhangju), Chapter 1,” Zhu Xi interprets the Way in terms of “Zhong” and “Yong.” Zhong is an expression meaning not falling short or going too far, while Yong refers to the principle of normality. Zhu Xi explains that even though the Way is the natural path for all humans (Yong), it differs because our psycho-physical traits guide us through different paths that create an imbalance in the Way. These traits are the difference of going too far or not going far enough. At the end of the text, Zhu Xi reaffirms the writings of Zisi by stating that the Way cannot be departed from the self and can only be attained by practicing self-examination. This text is of great importance to the history of China because it allows for the understanding of the Confucius classics. Through his commentaries, Zhu Xi not only explained the meaning of each classic but also introduced ideas of his own that pertained to current issues at that time. It is this text that became the foundation of Neo-Confucian philosophy, discourse and rhetoric. In Japan and Korea, writings like this became the foundations for Confucian teachings that not only influenced the development of East Asia but also modern times.

B.
The government structures as well as the power shifts of Korea and Japan are characterized by marriage, wealth and power and influences from China. These three factors can be seen throughout the different emperors, aristocrats and other classes that rose to power in Korea and Japan. While in some periods some characteristics may be more prevalent than others, the presence of the three of them is undeniable. Marriage plays an important role in the aristocratic groups and emperors who rose to power in both Korea and Japan. In Korea, during the Unification of Silla (668-692) marriage kingship was the mean of rising to power. Within the bone rank system of Silla, the True Bones, descendants of the three royal clans, could only marry its members. For example, the lineages of the first eight kings came from the Pak lineage and all queens came from the Kim lineage. During later years, from 356 to 654, all kings were members of the Kim lineage and all queens came from the Pak family. These royal clans monopolized all the ranks of office and pass their power from generation to generation. Although very rigid, the bones rank system also protected the aristocratic status and gave privileges to various tribal leaders who were being incorporated into the sociopolitical system. It was through marriage that these lower aristocratic classes continued passing the privileges of staying in high ranks to their future generations.
In Japan, marriage kinship was also important especially during the Tomb period. The Tomb period is characterized by the construction of immense tombs that came in a variety of sizes and shapes. The variety of these tombs signaled a highly stratified society. The source of power that was behind the construction of tombs was an aristocratic group called the Yamato kings. This group emerged at the top of social order in great part by the marriage kinship. Polygamy ensured a large number of candidates to rule, after the death of the king. But with a large number of candidates came fierce competition for the ruler position and candidates sought support through their marriage ties.
During the Asuka period in Japan, the Soga kinship group seized the power from the Yamato kings with the help of marriage ties. While origins are unknown, it is believed that the Soga were descendants of immigrants. Instead of replacing the royal family, the Soga secured their authority by marrying their daughters into the royal families. The power of the royal family differed depending on the ruler but in general the Soga were the driving force during this period.
During the Heian period (794-c.1180), marriage played another important role for the Fujiwara. The Fujiwara house was founded by Nakatomi no Kamatari. Since it was very large, the Fujiwara was divided into four branches. The Northern or Hokke branch was among the most powerful and wealthiest during the Heian period. This was the first time that someone outside the imperial family was ruling over the land. The major factor for their success was marriage kinship with the imperial family. The best example of the use of marriage ties was the Michinaga who in an attempt to reach the highest office post married four of his daughters to the emperors of whom two were his grandsons. Wealth was another crucial characteristic in the rise of aristocratic groups as well as government officials in both Korea and Japan. During the Three Kingdoms (313-668) era in Korea, the elite society controlled vast resources of labor and power. Archaeologists have found large mounded tombs that depict the resources and labor that the elite enjoyed. During the Koryo dynasty (935-1392), the bone rank system of the Silla was no longer as strong as it was once. The first ruler of the Koryo was Wang Kon who welcomed educated elite to high office posts . While Kwangjong, his successor, wanted to increase the power of the central government by obtaining the approval of the aristocracy . Kwangjong used his wealth and power to develop the land allotment system that was based on the personal rank. In addition, when the centralized school system was developed in 922, admission to the most privileged schools was reserved for families of high ranks. In the Japanese society, the use of wealth and power increased with the growth of the economy and social stratification. As mentioned before, the Tomb period was characterized by the large variety of tombs that requires not only a vast amount of labor power but also of wealth. The wealth came from the agricultural development that led to a growth in trade and thus brought prosperity to the elite. The agricultural development brought the elite payment surpluses, profitable trade in luxury goods, construction of imposing statues and other structures, military power, craft and technical specialist groups, central kings with a court and power noble families. During Nara Japan, the government divided the city into a grid, allotting plots of land to the people based on their ranks. Those who lived closer to the imperial palace belong to the high ranks. Again, wealth was eminent in the grand dwellings of the elite. Most of the high offices during this period were largely ceremonial but the wealth and rank in office was of great importance. Ranks in office during this time not only entitled you to a social prestige but also to an official stipend which was a large source of income for. The lowest ranks also received lands which were residential units. These residential units supported the elite by paying taxes in rice, food, textiles, forced labor or military services. During the Heian Japan period, the emergence of the Estates or "Shoen" brought even more wealth and power to the elite. The estates were private land owned by the elite that were free of government control. They were the only one exempt from having private land. In addition, they enjoyed a variety of exemptions and immunities. These estates grew so powerful that in many cases, government officials could not even enter them. It was this estate system that gave rise to a new administrative class, the shiki. The shiki were entitled to a percentage of the income from land. The government had lost power and the majority of decisions were not taken at the court but instead were made by aristocratic families that were either the patrons of the estates or part of the administrative class. No discussion of the government and bureaucracy of Korea and Japan would be completely without a discussion of the Chinese influences in these two countries. Since the beginning of the Three Kingdoms era, Korea was influenced by Chinese beliefs. Koguryo, Paekche, and Silla were ruled by warrior elites who use Chinese political practices to strengthened the monarchy and acquire the central control. Paekche, for instance, developed not only a military but also a trading and cultural relationship with China. While Silla, still a confederation of tribes, took steps to institutionalize governments. Steps like issuing Chinese-style law codes as well as sponsoring Buddhism as a state religion resembled Chinese culture. During the Unification of Silla (668-892), bureaucracy relied heavily on Chinese influence. Influences such as the Chinese bureaucratic model, post stations for officials and for communications of official messages were built in these civilizations. During the Koryo dynasty, the bureaucratic class built its power by patronizing both Buddhism and Confucianism.
Japan was also greatly influenced by the Chinese. During the Nara Period, the government placed a great emphasis on written word modeled by the Chinese. They wrote documents explaining the structure and laws of the official government. Within the structure of the government was an elaborate system of ranks that that regulated the official positions. While pretty rigid on paper, the system of ranks gave special treatment to the sons of high ranking officials. All this administrative structure was financed by a system of taxation also taken from Chinese theories. Another Chinese influence was the development of a countrywide military system during the Kamakura period (1180-1333). This development was part of a long-term plan to make Japan a centralized, bureaucratic state based on the Chinese model. This system was developed by establishing militias units in the provinces commanded by provincial governors. Wealth, marriage kinships, and the influence of China brought many groups to reign what is now Japan and Korea. In every succession of power, one is able to see the major role of these three characteristics. Every ruler or aristocratic group had made use of these characteristics to gain power. While the educated elite had some reign, their positions were not very strong and did not last for a long period of time. The spread of Confucianism and Buddhism allowed people to go up the social ladder through education but they rarely made it to the top. The emphasis of education was more for the books than for the reality.

Bibliography

Brown Miranda, Gay Suzanne, Lurie David and Schirokauer Conrad. A Brief History of Chinese and Japanese Civilizations. Thomson Wadsworth, 2006. de Bary, Wm. Theodore (ed.) Sources of East Asian Tradition. Vol. 1: Premodern Asia (Introduction to Asian Civilizations). New York: Columbia University Press, 2008. Ebrey, Walthall and Palais (eds.) East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History: Second Edition. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, (2009)