...Define anisocytosis. varying cell sizes Define poikilocytosis varying cell shapes From which cells do B cells arise? stem cells in bone marrow From which cells do plasma cells differentiate? B cells How can a Nissl stain be used to differentiate microglia from oligodendroglia? Microglia are not discernable in a Nissl stain while oligodendroglia appear as small dark nuclei with dark chromatin In what type of CNS tissue (white or grey) are oligodendroglia predominant? white matter Into what cell type does a monocyte differentiate in tissues? Macrophages Name 2 substances produced by an eosinophil. histiminase and arylsulfatase Name the three types of leukocytic granulocytes. basophils, eosinophils, and neutrophils Name the two types of mononuclear leukocytes. lymphocytes and monocytes What are 2 functions of T cell lymphocytes? - cellular immune response regulation of B lymphocytes and macrophages What are 2 morphological features of microglia? - small irregular nuclei - and relatively little cytoplasm What are 3 examples of peripheral lymphoid tissue? - follicles of lymph nodes white pulp of spleen unencapsulated lymphoid tissue What are 3 functions of a macrophage? - pagocytosis of bacteria, cell debris, and senescent red cells - scavenges damaged cells and tissues - can function as an antigen presenting cell What are 3 morphological characteristics of monocytes? - Large - Kidney-shaped nucleus...
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...antibody derivatives, which utilize the natural in vivo heterodimerization of the heavy chain (Fd fragment) and light chain (L) of a Fab fragment, to form a scaffold, upon which additional functions can be incorporated, such as additional binders - e.g. scFv binding domains. Each chain can be extended preferably at the C-terminus with an additional scFv binder. The chains are co-produced in mammalian cells, where the host-cell BiP chaperone drives the formation of the heavy chain-light chain heterodimer (Fd:L) - this reaction does not appear to be inhibited by the chain extensions, and leads to a very specific heterodimerization, using molecules abundantly present in serum (non-immunogenic) These heterodimers are stable, with each of the binders retaining their specific affinities, with the bivalent tribody having higher affinity, and higher activatation of T-cell proliferation and cytotoxicity in vivo. This design allows easy engineering of multispecificity in a single molecule, e.g. bispecific antibodies bivalent for the target and monovalent for effector activation (e.g. for T-cell activation), or trispecific antibodies pur sang. 1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 2 2 Tribody Structure, Production and Stability .................................................................................................
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...by which B cells become fully activated B cell activation occurs in the secondary lymphoid organs such as the spleen and lymph nodes. After B cells mature in the bone marrow they migrate to the spleen and lymph nodes which receive a constant supply of antigen. B cell activation begins when the B cell bind to an antigen via its BCR. The antigen can either be free floating or presented by APCs such as macrophages or dendritic cells. The antigens can include proeins, glycoproteins, whole virus particles and whole bacterial cells. Mature B cells preferentially undergo T-cell dependant activation whilst marginal zone B cells and B1 B cells preferentially undergo T cell-independent activation. B cell activation is enhanced through the activity of CD21, a surface receptor in complex with surface proteins CD19 and CD81 which are together known as the B cell coreceptor complex. When a BCR binds an antigen tagged with C3 complement protein, CD21 binds the C3 fragment, co-ligates with the bound BCR and signals are transducer to lower the activation threshold of the cell. T cell-independent activation Antigens that activate B cells with the help of T cells are known as T cell dependant antigens and include foreign proteins. They are unable to induce a humeral response in organisms that lack T cells. B cell response to these antigens takes multiple days, though antibodies generated have a higher affinity and are more functionally versatile than those generated rom T cell-independent...
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...specific antigen into the body that triggers the primary immune response. T cells provide cellular immunity and B cells provide humoral immunity. Both work together to provide the immune response. First the weakened antigen fragment is inserted/injected into the body. A phagocyte will then engulf the abnormal antigen. Before destroying the bacterium a Class1 MHCP incorporates the bacterium and carries it to the plasma membrane for presentation. As a CD8 T Cell passes it first recognizes the antigen on the infected cell. Costimulation occurs to ensure that they are a match. Once confirmed the CD8 receptors bind to the antigen and it activates and undergoes clonal selection. It divides and differentiates into an Effector Cell which reacts to the antigen and a Memory Cell which remembers the antigen for the environmental exposure of the flu and its antigen. The Memory cell plays no role in the initial response, but waits for the second response. Cytotoxic cells destroy the cell by one of three ways and Helper T Cells coordinate the innate and adaptive immune response. You can’t tell by reading this, but the whole process has a window period of about two weeks. The reasoning behind the vaccine. Which is the first response, is to prime the body for the Naturally Acquired Active Immunity, the environmental exposure of the flu and its antigen into the body. This is the second response that the Memory Cells have primed for. They are prepared for the antigen with plenty of antibodies...
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...Dendritic Cells Dendritic cells, also known as professional antigen-presenting cell (APC), are one of the three types of APCs present within the multicellular aggregation of our bodies. They were first discovered in 1973 by Ralph Steinman who was studying spleen cells to understand the induction of immune responses in a major lymphoid organ of a mouse.(1) The importance of their existence lies in their function to orchestrate and stimulate cells within the immune system. Thus, dendritic cells can be purported as the indicative link between the innate and adaptive immune systems and may possibly give rise to future antitumor vaccines.(6) Dendritic cells play a significant role in the innate immune system as they have the ability to interact...
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...its incidence is on the rise, since the early 1970's, incidence rates for NHL have nearly doubled. Of the nearly 500,000 Americans with lymphoma, approximately 332,000 have this form. Over 65,000 cases of NHL are diagnosed annually in the United States. (www.LYMPHOMA. Org 2015, n.d.) Lymphoma occurs when lymphocytes, a type of white blood cell, grow abnormally. The body has two main types of lymphocytes that can develop into lymphomas: B-lymphocytes (B-cells) and T-lymphocytes (T-cells). Cancerous lymphocytes can travel to many parts of the body, including the lymph nodes, spleen, bone marrow, blood or other organs, and can accumulate to form tumors. The two main forms of lymphoma are Hodgkin lymphoma (HL) and non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL). Non-Hodgkin lymphoma is not a single disease, but a group of several closely related cancers. The World Health Organization estimates that there are at least 61 types of NHL. (www.LYMPHOMA. Org 2015, n.d.) Non-Hodgkin lymphomas are broadly divided into two major groups: B-cell lymphomas and T-cell lymphomas. B-cell lymphomas develop from abnormal B-lymphocytes and account for 85 percent of all NHLs. T-cell lymphomas develop from abnormal T-lymphocytes and account for the remaining 15 percent of all NHLs. Non-Hodgkin lymphomas may also be classified as indolent (slow-growing) or aggressive (fast-growing). (King, (2014). ) Although the various types of NHL have some things in common, they differ in their appearance under the microscope, their...
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...A) Cloning endangered species may de-emphasize the need to preserve critical natural habitats. B) Cloning does not increase genetic diversity in the cloned species. C) Cloned animals are less healthy than animals created by natural methods. D) All of the choices are problems created by cloning. E) None of the choices are problems created by cloning. Topic: Introduction Skill: Factual Recall 2) The ability to use the nucleus from an adult somatic cell to create all of the cell types in a new organism demonstrates that development depends upon A) the control of gene expression. B) the timing of mitosis and meiosis. C) the timing of meiosis and cell migrations. D) the deposition of materials in the extracellular matrix. E) the position of cells within an embryo. Topic: Introduction Skill: Conceptual Understanding 3) The term gene expression refers to the A) fact that each individual of a species has a unique set of genes. B) fact that individuals of the same species have different phenotypes. C) process by which genetic information flows from genes to proteins. D) fact that certain genes are visible as dark stripes on a chromosome. E) flow of information from parent to offspring. Topic: 11.1 Skill: Conceptual Understanding 4) In a prokaryote, a group of genes with related functions, along with their associated control sequences, defines A) an allele. B) an operon. C) a locus. D) a transposon. E) a chromosome. Topic: 11.1 Skill: Factual Recall ...
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...Blood De’Ana Pierce AP2630 The significance of a lower than normal hematocrit indicates the percentage of total red blood cells is below the lower limits of normal for that person’s age, sex, or specific condition. The cause can be anemia which is a lower than normal number of red blood cells. Other factors that can cause lower than normal hematocrit is bleeding, destruction of a red blood cells, leukemia, malnutrition, and over hydration. (Medline Plus Anemia, 2013). The effect of a bacterial infection on the hematocrit means the white blood cell count is elevated. Above normal white blood cells indicates an infection. Comparison of the development of lymphocytes with the development of the other formed elements. The process of development is called hemopoiesis and it occurs mainly in red bone marrow after birth. Red bone marrow cells contain pluripotent stem cells that have the ability to develop into many different types of cells. Myeloid stem cells begin and complete their development in red bone marrow and turn into red blood cells, platelets, mast cells, eosinophils, basophils, neutrophils, and monocytes. Lymphoid stem cells begin their development in red bone marrow but are completed in lymphatic tissues, where they rise to lymphocytes and natural killer cells. (Jenkins, Kemnitz, Tortora, 2013). Erythropoiesis is the production of red blood cell formation. It speeds up when oxygen is delivered to the kidney and other tissues. It slows down when there is a decrease in...
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...percentage of red blood cells is below the lower limits of normal. The effect of you having a bacterial infection would be your white blood cell count would increase because as the wbc's are fighting off the infection they die off releasing a chemical into the blood stream that tells your body to increase the amount of production of white blood cells so the hematocrit would have a thicker buffer layer. The buffer layer being the white blood cells. With a higher production of white blood cells the rbc production would very slightly decrease which would decrease the ratio of rbc to whole blood volume. 2. Compare the development of lymphocytes with the development of the other formed elements. -Lymphocytes and the other formed elements are developed from pluripotent stem cells. The pluripotent stem cells generate myeloid stem cells and lymphoid stem cells. Myeloid stem cells start and complete their development in red bone marrow and give rise to red blood cells, platelets, eosinophils, basophils, neutrophils, and monocytes. Lymphoid stem cells begin development in the red bone marrow, but some are completed in the lymphatic tissues, where they give rise to lymphocytes. The B cell lymphocytes begin and finished in the red bone marrow and the T cell lymphocytes begin in the red bone marrow, but they mature in the thymus. 3. What is erythropoiesis? Which factors speed up and slow down erythropoiesis? -Erythropoiesis is the process of red blood cell formation or production...
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...Biology journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/developmentalbiology Marker genes identify three somatic cell types in the fetal mouse ovary Raphael H. Rastetter a,1, Pascal Bernard a,1, James S. Palmer b, Anne-Amandine Chassot c,d, Huijun Chen b, Patrick S. Western e, Robert G. Ramsay f,g, Marie-Christine Chaboissier c,d, Dagmar Wilhelm a,n a Department of Anatomy and Developmental Biology, Monash University, Clayton, VIC 3800, Australia Division of Molecular Genetics and Development, Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4075, Australia c University of Nice-Sophia Antipolis, UFR Sciences, Nice, France d INSERM U1091, CNRS UMR7277, IBV, Nice, France e MIMR-PHI Institute of Medical Research, Clayton, VIC 3800, Australia f Sir Peter MacCallum, Department of Oncology and the Pathology Department, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia g Department of Pathology, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia b ar t ic l e i nf o a b s t r a c t Article history: Received 27 June 2014 Received in revised form 12 August 2014 Accepted 15 August 2014 Available online 23 August 2014 The two main functions of the ovary are the production of oocytes, which allows the continuation of the species, and secretion of female sex hormones, which control many aspects of female development and physiology. Normal development of the ovaries during embryogenesis is critical for their function and the health of the individual in later...
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...hematocrit? (PAGE 618 619) First, hematocrit (HCT) is the percentage of blood made up of red blood cells. Usually measured by centrifuging a blood sample in a graduated tube and then reading the volume of red blood cells and dividing it by the total volume of blood in a sample. A significant drop in hematocrit is an indication of anemia (lower-than-normal number of red blood cells (Jenkins & Tortora, 2013). A bacterial infection would increase the production of white blood cells to fight off the infection. The hematocrit would have a thicker buffer layer (white blood cells) causing the red blood cell production to slightly decrease which would decrease the ratio of red blood cells to whole blood volume. 2. Compare the development of lymphocytes with the development of the other formed elements. (PAGES 629 631 632 769) Lymphocytes and the other formed elements are developed from pluripotent stem cells. The pluripotent stem cells generate myeloid stem cells and lymphoid stem cells. Myeloid stem cells start and complete their development in red bone marrow and give rise to red blood cells, platelets, eosinophils, basophils, neutrophils, and monocytes. Lymphoid stem cells begin development in the red bone marrow, but some are completed in the lymphatic tissues, where they give rise to lymphocytes. The B cell lymphocytes begin and finished in the red bone marrow and the T cell lymphocytes begin in the red bone marrow, but they mature in the thymus (Jenkins & Tortora, 2013)...
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...B-cell Leukemia/Lymphoma 2 is a special type of proto-oncogene found on chromosome 18. Its product is an integral membrane protein (called BCL-2) located in the membrane of the Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER), the nuclear envelope, and in the outer membranes of the Mitochondria. The gene was discovered as a trans located locus in B-cell Leukemia, and found also in most B-cell Lymphomas. In the cancerous B-cells, the amount of chromosome 18 holding the BCL-2 locus has undergone a reciprocal translocation with the portion of chromosome 14, holding the antibody heavy chain locus. This (14; 18) translocation places the BCL-2 gene close to the heavy chain gene enhancer. This enhancer is active in the B cells- whose job is to synthesize large amounts of the antibody-. So it is not very surprising to discover that the BCL-2 protein is expressed at high levels in these T (14; 18) cells. B-cells, like all activated lymphocytes, die after they have done their jobs. This makes sure they do not linger after the threat has...
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...Reviewing Your Knowledge A. Embryonic Development 1. Gamete 2. Morula 3. Uterine Tube 4. Implantation 5. Day 6 6. Chorionic Villi 7. Blastocyst 8. Zona Pellucida 9. Decidua Basalis 10. Amniotic Sac 11. Amnion 12. Two 13. One 14. Chorion 15. Three 16. Placenta 17. Secondary Oocyte 18. Spermatoza 19. endometrium 20. Zygote 21. Ectododerm 22. Endoderm 23. Mesoderm B. Fetal Development 1. Amnion 2. week 9 to week 38 3. week 9 4. week 8 5. 12,20 6. 16,24 7. 20,38 Using Your Knowledge A. Human Development 1. These enzymes are used by the sperm to create an opening in the corona radiata, zona pellucida, and plasma membrane of the oocyte for the sperm to pass through 2. An ectopic pregnancy in the uterine tube can occur if there is blockage in the uterine tube which would allow sperm to pass into the uterine tube, but not allow the oocyte, zygote or anything larger to enter the uterus. Implantation of the blastocyst occurs in the wall of the uterine tube. An ectopic pregnancy in the pelvic cavity can occur if the ovulated oocyte does not enter the uterine tube and is fertilized by the sperm in the pelvic cavity. Implantation of the blastocyst can occur on an ovary, the cervix or another organ in the abdominal pelvic cavity. 3. Skin and hypodermis, abdominal wall muscles, uterus, placenta. 4. Fetal cells in amniotic fluid are derived from ectoderm (epithelial cells from skin) and endoderm (epithelial cells from the lining of the digestive tract...
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...Hearing Loss and Perceptual Development By Audrey Davies due by April, 6 2012 Psych 310 1 Intro Perceptual development is the way in which we use our senses to gather and organize information in order to understand and interpret the world around us. We gather information through sensory stimuli by hearing, seeing, touching, smelling, and tasting. Starting from infancy, perceptual development begins when babies begin to take the world in through these senses. They begin by giving meaning to the objects that they see and hear. According to Mark K. Fagan and David B. Pisoni, “infants learn about their environment through sensory exploration, acquiring knowledge that is important for cognitive development...the fundamental information that infants obtain through sensory perception and exploration of their environment contributes to the learning and development of important cognitive concepts” (Fagan & Pisoni, 2009). Hearing is especially important and key to their brain development, and any deficiency can possibly lead to delays in speech, and language. Hearing loss is a result of several reasons such as trauma, severe ear infections, in utero infections and a vast number of other diseases and disorders. In all actuality we hear with our brains and not our ears. However the ears play an important function which allows us to transmit sound. Before going into further details here is some basics of the auditory system. The Cochlea is the is the most...
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...anemia, a lower than normal number of red blood cells (RBCs). Lower values in women during their reproductive years also may be due to excessive loss of blood during menstruation. A bacterial infection would increases the production the number of White Blood Cells (WBC), because the WBC are fighting off the infection may affect the hematocrit by lowering it. 2. Compare the development of lymphocytes with the development of the other formed elements? Lymphocytes: produced in red bone marrow but lymphocytes can also be produced in lymphatic organs such as lymph nodes and spleen. Develop from lymphoid stem cells. B cells: Attack bacteria, viruses and toxins T cells: Acting directly against virus-infected cells and tumor cells Leucocytes: Only formed elements that are complete cells with a nucleus and usual organelles Develop from myeloid stem cells. Platelets: hemopoietic stem cells also differentiate into cells that produce platelets, under the influence of the hormone thrombopoietin, myeloid cells develop into precursor cells called megakaryoblasts that transform into megakaryocytes in the red bone marrow. 3. What is erythropoiesis? Which factors speed up and slow down erythropoiesis? Erythropoiesis is the process of red blood cell formation or production which begins in the red bone marrow with a precursor cell called proerythroblast. It then divides several times until, producing cells that...
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