RESEARCH PAPER 2
THE PAPACY

Jonathan Waters
February 18, 2013
CHHI 301-B12

During the collapse of the Western Roman Empire, the Bishop of Rome became a very influential and powerful figure in the church. Many different men held this position and were very successful. Although many of the effects of the papacy were positive, the overwhelming power they held, combined with the age of obscurantism, superstition, and credulity in which they lived, allowed many false claims and doctrines to come about. Some of these doctrines are still existence today. They have caused many dissentions throughout the centuries following the rise of the Papacy. The historical beginnings of the Papacy are somewhat hard to uncover. Due to the decline in power of the Western Emperor, the Bishop of Rome, or Pope, became the primary political leader of Italy. The word “pope” is derived from the term pappa, which originated in the ancient colloquial Greek as an endearing term for “father.” It was a common title applied to most of the Eastern clergy. However, in the West the term was only common in Rome and in the later eleventh century was made the official title for the Bishop of Rome by Gregory VII. The term “papacy” (papatus), meant to distinguish the Roman bishop’s office from all other bishoprics (episcopates), also originated in the later eleventh century. However, this position was more than just a political position. The papacy was a unique sort of monarchy in that it claimed jurisdiction in both spiritual and temporal affairs. The first three and a half centuries of papal history have left remarkably little record. Whether or not the Patrimonial origins of Peter can be confirmed, most scholars agree that Peter did visit Rome and most likely died there. But the claim of the early Popes of Rome was that they were direct successors to the apostolic faith. This originated around the second century, but is not considered fact because of the inconsistencies in the writings of the early Popes. Such a claim has been highly scrutinized throughout the centuries, but Peter’s presence in the imperial capital was recognized by Christian leaders by the end of the 1st century. For instance, some writings claim that Clement directly succeeded Peter as Pope, while others say he was possibly the third Pope after Peter’s martyrdom. This has lead to some scholars to suggest a “collegiate episcopacy.” This is a group of bishops who jointly lead the church, which would be much more aligned with Apostles leading of the church in Jerusalem. Peter, John, and James were the apparent head of this church. Whatever the origins were, it is irrelevant to the historical narrative, as the suggested origins have been largely accepted throughout history by the church. Although they have been questioned by their rivals throughout history, by virtue of the Patrimony of St. Peter, the papacy possessed in its own right territorial jurisdiction over a central Italian state, wherein the Pope ruled like any other European monarch. This ideology would set about changing the political landscape for centuries. The papacy’s rise to power is an interesting one, with such a loss of power by the Western Emperor as a result of many different events. Staring in 324A.D. with the new Emperor Constantine and his successors in the East making Constantinople into the “new Rome”; and then culminating with the Germanic invasions and the Fall of Rome (410 A.D.). The office of the Pope became the head of the city and region, as well as the church. An early example of such a position is seen in the life of Pope Leo. He was greatly involved with the theological aspects of his office. The Arian Conflict was still a major issue inside the church. Pope Leo took up the argument as Athanaius and Augustine before him. However, his position and challenges were met with a lot of hostility in the East until Emperors, who were more favorable to his position, came into power. The result was a growth in prestige for the papacy. Many circumstances helped to further this growth. One which had significant impact was at the Council of Chalcedon (451A.D.). This council accorded the patriarch of Constantinople the same primacy in the East that the bishop of Rome held in the West. Such a power gave new found political power and strength to the previously weakened West, which would surely be needed in the coming years, but also brought about significant division between the Western and Eastern churches and governments. While the state of the Western was in steady decline, the future was looking all the more treacherous because of the impending invasion by Attila the Hun. Because of the lack of empiric power in the West, Leo left Rome to meet the “Scourge of God.” The Senate determined to send an embassy of the loftiest citizens of Rome to appeal to Attila. However, their mission names and selfless acts are forgotten as it is Leo who would get the credit. In the minds of men it was neither Roman consular nor Italian prefect, but God’s High-priest who confronted the heathen conqueror with a spirit loftier and more commanding than his own. No one knows what was said between the two, but history says that Attila decided not to attack Rome. Likewise, Leo’s successful negotiation with the Vandals to keep them from destroying the city gave him great authority in Rome. His successors would not have near the success. Although political issues were a part of the rivalry between the papacy and the Eastern Empire, it appears that theological differences became the battleground between the two. As mentioned earlier, the Arian Controversy was still a major issue. The tensions lead to violent riots in Rome. These riots were are a part of the schism between the differing popes and was only resolved after a series of synods, culminated by Pope Hormisdas. However, this new found peace was short lived because of the new emperor, Justinian. Unfortunately for the papacy, this emperor was not as political as his predecessors. Emperor Justinian was determined to make the church subject to the state (Hist p. 284). His impact would lessen the power held by the papacy until his death in 565A.D. With his death, Byzantine power began to wane in Italy and the papacy rose back up to take the political and spiritual control of the region. The next couple few popes brought about some security through their negotiations with the Lombards. Both Pope Benedict I and his successor Pelagius II were capable leaders and were able to keep Rome intact through some shrewd political maneuvering. Pelagius II was able to plant the groundwork for the future relationship with the Franks who would become the main support of the papacy. However, Pelagius successor Gregory the Great became the benchmark for success. Under Pope Gregory I, the papacy would grow to new heights. His rise to the position came at a time when Rome was under great threat from the Lombards, the Ostrogoths, depression, and disease. He was able to work his way up the ranks through all of this chaos, and when Pope Pelagius II died, the door was opened for Gregory to become pope. He did not wish to become pope, but because of his prestige and the lack of other willing candidates cemented his election. He tried to write the Emperor to have his election annulled, but the letter was intercepted. From there, Gregory set about changing the conditions of the city and region, by ensuring a steady flow of food into the city, and negotiating peace with the Lombards. The religious aspects of the position carried the most relevance to Gregory. He preached often and called the faithful to renewed commitment. He increased the scope of his power in the West in Spain and the British Isles and played vital roles in the conversions of the Visigoth’s. He was highly involved in the spiritual battles in the church. For instance, he sent letters to Africa to deal with Donatist schism. However, not all of the clergy were happy with his increasing popularity. The African bishops did not receive his letters well because they wanted to guard their independence. Likewise, his attempts to quall some of the various Frankish issues was not successful, as the Frankish rulers wished to control the church. Gregory’s legacy is mostly attributed to his writings. His writings were not some new aged jargon, a throwback to the early church fathers. His favorite writer was Augustine of Hippo. But ultimately Gregory’s doctrines misrepresented the great bishop. Gregory made the writings of Augustine infallible, thus undermining the humility and contradicting the spirit of that teacher, whose genius was, at least in part, in his inquiring spirit and venturesome mind. This misinterpretation of Augustine’s conjecture caused Gregory to posit a place of purification. On the basis of Augustine’s speculation, Gregory affirmed the existence of such a place, and thus gave impetus to the development of the doctrine of purgatory. Furthermore, the negative effects of Gregory’s doctrines of salvation lead to many of the stereological debates that still exist today. Gregory mitigated and transformed the Augustinian doctrines of salvation. He set aside the doctrines of predestination and irresistible grace because he was more concerned with the question of how we pay for our sins. His position was that this was done through penance, which consists of contrition, confession, and the actual punishment or satisfaction, to which must be added priestly absolution and thereby confirming the forgiveness granted by God. He surmised that those who died in the faith without fulfilling all these requirements passed into purgatory until they were able to attain final salvation. He also posited a notion that Christ was crucified each time mass or communion took place. All of these doctrines would eventually lead to the reformation in the sixteenth century that would basically dispose the power of the papacy. The papacy still has tremendous respect and power the world over, but the political prestige and autonomy as a national state does not exist in the same respect. Vatican City is still a sovereign nation, but in retrospect to the control established over the Western empire by Pope Leo and later Pope Gregory, the papacy has seen their power and influence diminish tremendously. Perhaps the repeated insisting on divine appointment by the Patrimony of Peter and/or the lack of exegetical teaching of the scriptures from the papacy ultimately lead to the loss of power.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Abulfia, David. The New Cambridge Medieval History. Cambridge University Press, 2013. http://universitypublishingonline.org.ezproxy.liberty.edu:2048/cambridge/histories/ebook.jsf?bid=CBO9781139055734 (accessed February 16, 2013).
Beet, William Ernest. The Rise of the Papacy, London: C.H. Kelly, 1910. http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=yale.39002053453214;seq=1;view=1up (accessed February 16, 2013).
Coppa, Frank J., “Papacy,” in Encyclopædia Britannica, Academic Ed. http://www.britannica.com.ezproxy.liberty.edu:2048/EBchecked/topic/441722/papacy (accessed February 16, 2013).
Elwell, Walter A., ed. Evangelical Dictionary of Theology, 2nd Ed. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 1984.
González, Justo L. The Story of Christianity. New York, NY: HarperOne, 2010.
Schimmelpfennig, Bernhard. The Papacy. New York: NY, Columbia University Press, 1992. http://books.google.com/books?id=cZf4YzRlnA4C&printsec=frontcover&dq=Roman+papacy+300&hl=en&sa=X&ei=DDsgUZ_FKKjw2QXDi4HgAw&sqi=2&ved=0CDMQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=Roman%20papacy%20300&f=false (accessed February 16, 2013).

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[ 1 ]. Walter A. Elwell, ed., Evangelical Dictionary of Theology, 2nd Ed. (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 1984), 888.
[ 2 ]. Ibid.
[ 3 ]. David Abulafia, The New Cambridge Medieval History, (Cambridge University Press, 2013), 107, http://universitypublishingonline.org.ezproxy.liberty.edu:2048/cambridge/histories/ebook.jsf?bid=CBO9781139055734 (accessed February 16, 2013).
[ 4 ]. Habib, Evangelical Dictionary, 888.
[ 5 ]. Justo L. González, The Story of Christianity (New York, NY: HarperOne, 2010), 282.
[ 6 ]. Frank J. Coppa, “Papacy,” in Encyclopædia Britannica, Academic Ed. http://www.britannica.com.ezproxy.liberty.edu:2048/EBchecked/topic/441722/papacy (accessed February 16, 2013).
[ 7 ]. Habib, A Story of Christianity, 282.
[ 8 ]. Ibid, 28.
[ 9 ]. Habib, The New Cambridge, 107.
[ 10 ]. Bernhard Schimmelpfennig, The Papacy, (New York: NY, Columbia University Press, 1992), 16, http://books.google.com/books?id=cZf4YzRlnA4C&printsec=frontcover&dq=Roman+papacy+300&hl=en&sa=X&ei=DDsgUZ_FKKjw2QXDi4HgAw&sqi=2&ved=0CDMQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=Roman%20papacy%20300&f=false (accessed February 16, 2013).
[ 11 ]. Habib, A Story of Christianity, 282.
[ 12 ]. Habib, Encyclopædia Britannica.
[ 13 ]. William Ernest Beet, The Rise of the Papacy, (London: C.H. Kelly, 1910), 262, http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=yale.39002053453214;seq=1;view=1up (accessed February 16, 2013).
[ 14 ]. Habib, A Story of Christianity, 285.
[ 15 ]. Ibid, 287.
[ 16 ]. Ibid.
[ 17 ]. Ibid.
[ 18 ]. Ibid.
[ 19 ]. Ibid, 288.
[ 20 ]. Ibid.
[ 21 ]. Ibid.