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Biology

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Mit einer Vielzahl von Strukturen und Mechanismen setzt sich der Organismus gegenüber Krankheitserregern zur Wehr. Haut Schleimhäute Niesreflex Husten Magensäure
Neben diesen angeborenen Schutzfaktoren gibt es Abwehrmechanismen, die erst durch den Kontakt mit einem Erreger aktiv werden.
Je nach Art des Erregers werden unterschiedliche Zellen des Immunsystems aktiviert, die gezielt gegen den Erreger vorgehen.
Zu ihnen gehören: die B-Zellen, deren Antikörper sich an die Erreger heften, die T-Zellen, die kranke Zellen abtöten und die Arbeit der B-Zellen unterstützen und die Fresszellen (Makrophagen), die Eindringlinge auffressen und dadurch unschädlich machen.
Die Abwehr findet im gesamten Körper statt. Einige Organe erfüllen aber wichtige Spezialaufgaben. Im Knochenmark entstehen die weißen Blutkörperchen, aus denen sich die B- und die T-Zellen entwickeln. Im Thymus reifen die T-Zellen. In der Milz werden Fremdkörper abgefangen, die in das Blut gelangt sind. In den Lymphknoten reinigen Fresszellen die Gewebeflüssigkeit.

Ein Erreger dringt in den Körper ein und vermehrt sich. Seine Oberfläche besitzt ein typisches Muster. B-Zellen erkennen den Erreger an diesem Muster. Auf ihrer Oberfläche befinden sich Rezeptoren, die auf einer einzelnen Zelle immer die gleiche Form besitzen.
B-Zellen
Es gibt Millionen verschiedener B-Zellen. Sie unterscheiden sich in der Form des Rezeptors, den sie auf ihrer Oberfläche tragen.
B-Zellen Rezeptoren
Unter diesen B-Zellen gibt es einige wenige, deren Rezeptor zu dem Oberflächenmuster des Erregers passt. Durch die Bindung wird die B-Zelle aktiviert und beginnt sich zu teilen. Dadurch nimmt die Zahl der B-Zellen, die den Erreger erkennen können, stark zu.
Funktion der B-Zellen
Ein Teil der Zellen wird zu Plasmazellen. Sie beginnen Antikörper zu produzieren. Ihre Antikörper erkennen das gleiche Oberflächenmuster wie die Rezeptoren, die sie auf ihrer Oberfläche tragen.

Antikörper besitzen an ihrem Ende Bindungsstellen.
Antik?rper
Die Bindungsstellen unterscheiden sich je nach Plasmazelle, die den Antikörperproduziert hat. Alle Antikörper einer Plasmazelle sind gleich. Da nur B-Zellen aktiviert wurden, die an den Erreger binden konnten, wird der Körper mit Antikörpern überschwemmt, die alle die Fähigkeit besitzen, sich an den Erreger heften zu können.
Antik?rper
Durch die Antikörper verkleben Bakterien miteinander. Viren verlieren die Fähigkeit in Zellen eindringen zu können. Gifte werden unschädlich gemacht. Fresszellen erkennen Erreger, die mit Antikörpern markiert sind, leichter und fressen sie auf.
Weitere Zellen des Immunsystems unterstützen die Arbeit der B-Zellen.

Trifft eine Fresszelle auf einen Erreger, umfließt sie ihn und nimmt ihn in ihren Körper auf. Hier wird er verdaut − das heißt in kleine Stücke zerlegt. Einige dieser Bruchstücke setzt die Fresszelle auf Membranproteine und transportiert sie zur Zelloberfläche.

Damit zeigt sie nach außen, auf welchen Erreger sie gestoßen ist. Eine bestimmte Art von T-Zellen, die T-Helferzellen, besitzen Rezeptoren, mit denen sie die ausgestellten Erregerbruchstücke erkennen können.
Die Vielfalt der Rezeptoren ist so groß wie die Vielfalt der Antikörper. Auch hier gibt es Millionen verschiedener Zellen, von denen nur wenige passende Rezeptoren besitzen.
Wird ein ausgestelltes Erregerbruchstück von einer T-Helferzelle gebunden, beginnt sie sich zu teilen. Ihre Zahl nimmt stark zu.

Auch B-Zellen nehmen Erreger auf und stellen Bruchstücke von ihnen auf Membranproteinen zur Schau. Binden nun T-Helferzellen an die B-Zellen, werden die B-Zellen weiter stimuliert. Die Zellteilung wird verstärkt. Die Zahl der Plasmazellen wird erhöht und die Menge der gebildeten Antikörper steigt an.
Ist ein Virus bereits in eine Körperzelle eingedrungen, kann es von Antikörpern nicht mehr erreicht werden. Es benutzt den Zellapparat um große Mengen an Virusprotein zu produzieren. Ein Teil dieser Proteine wird von der Zelle abgebaut und die Bruchstücke werden auf Membranproteinen ausgestellt.
Eine zytotoxische T-Zelle kann so von außen erkennen, dass die Zelle von einemVirus befallen ist. Sie bindet an die Körperzelle und zerstört sie. Dadurch verhindert sie, dass die Körperzelle weitere Viren produziert.
Kommt es danach zu einem erneuten Kontakt mit dem gleichen Erreger, setzt die Produktion der Antikörper viel schneller ein und erreicht höhere Werte. Die Krankheitserscheinungen sind schwächer oder treten gar nicht erst auf.Woran liegt das?
Beim ersten Kontakt sind nur wenige B- und T-Zellen in der Lage den Erreger zu erkennen.
Diese Zellen müssen sich erst stark vermehren, bis genügend Antikörper produziert werden können. Bei der Vermehrung der B- und T-Zellen entstehen neben den bereits genannten Zellen auch Gedächtniszellen. Sie besitzen ebenfalls die Fähigkeit den Erreger zu erkennen. Diese Zellen bleiben auch nach Abwehr des Erregers erhalten. Mit ihnen "erinnert" sich das Immunsystem an überstandene Infektionen.
Bei einem erneuten Kontakt mit dem gleichen Erreger, können viel mehr B- und T-Zellen auf den Erreger reagieren. Die Vermehrung der Zellen startet auf einem höheren Niveau.
Bei der Wirkung von Impfungen macht man sich das Gedächtnis des Immunsystems zu nutze. Das Immunsystem wird mit einem Erreger in Kontakt gebracht, der entweder abgetötet ist, oder seine krankmachenden Eigenschaften verloren hat.
Die passenden B- und T-Zellen vermehren sich. Gedächtniszellen entstehen. Bei einem späteren Kontakt mit dem lebenden, krankmachenden Erreger kann die Abwehr so rasch aktiviert werden.
Bei Totimpfstoffen sind häufig zwei oder drei Impfungen notwendig. Nach mehreren Jahren muss die Impfung meist aufgefrischt werden. Verschiedene Impfstoffe können zusammen verabreicht werden.
Bei Lebendimpfstoffen sind bereits geringere Mengen ausreichend. Der natürliche Infektionsvorgang wird weitestgehend nachgeahmt. Häufig führt bereits eine einzelne Impfung zu lebenslanger Immunität.
Unter bestimmten Bedingungen kann die Schutzwirkung einer Impfung über die Geimpften hinausgehen und eine ganze Gemeinschaft vor der Ausbreitung einer Infektion schützen.
Sind nur wenige oder keine Personen geimpft, kann sich eine Infektion ungehindert über alle Kontaktpersonen ausbreiten. Ist der überwiegende Teil der Personen geimpft, können nur ungeimpfte Kontaktpersonen erkranken. Durch die Barrierewirkung der geimpften Personen werden auch Ungeimpfte geschützt.

Parasiten:
Parasiten sind Schmarotzer. Als Parasitismus im engeren Sinne bezeichnet man den Nahrungserwerb aus einem anderen Organismus. Dieser auch als Wirt bezeichnete Organismus wird geschädigt, aber entweder gar nicht oder erst zu einem späteren Zeitpunkt getötet.Parasiten sind in hohem Maße spezialisierte Lebewesen. Ihr Habitat ist in der Regel auf einige wenige Wirtsarten beschränkt, nicht selten findet sich nur eine einzige Wirtsart. Parasitismus zeigt sich in sehr vielfältigen Formen. Es gibt Zweifelsfälle, in denen es schwer ist, zwischen Parasitismus und anderen Interaktionen zwischen Arten zu unterscheiden. Parasitismus ist beileibe kein seltenes Phänomen, denn die überwiegende Zahl aller Lebewesen ist parasitiert. Symbiose:
Unter Symbiose versteht man das Zusammenleben artverschiedener Organismen zum gegenseitigen Nutzen. Flechten stellen eine der bekanntesten Symbiosen dar. Sie bestehen aus einem Pilz und einer Alge. Die Alge bringt die energiereiche Glukose, der Pilz benötigt diese als Nährstoff. Der Pilz liefert hingegen mineralische Stoffe an die Alge.

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