...protection, blood cell production, calcium storage and endocrine regulation. That enables the human body to survive. Main Parts / Structures and Functions: The skeleton is divided into two major parts: the axial skeleton and the appendicular skeleton. The axial skeleton forms the central axis of the body and includes skull, spine, ribs, and sternum. The appendicular skeleton includes the appendages, which are the shoulders, arms, hips, and legs. Example of Cell Specialization: Osteoprogenitor Cells: Osteoprogenitor cells are immature cells that are mainly based in the bone marrow (a soft fatty substance in the...
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...skeletal system consists of bones, cartilage, and the membranes that line the bones. Each bone is an organ that includes connective tissue (bone, blood, cartilage, adipose tissue, and fibrous connective tissue), nervous tissue, and muscle and epithelial tissues (within the blood vessels). The three main functions of the skeletal system are:-mechanical, support bones provide a framework for the attachment of muscles and other tissues. Movement bones enable body movements by acting as levers and points of attachment for muscles. Protective, bones such as the skull and rib cage protect vital organs from injury. Bones also protect the marrow. Metabolic, mineral storage. Bones serve as a reservoir for calcium and phosphorus, essential minerals for various cellular activities throughout the body. Blood cell production. The production of blood cells, or hematopoietic, occurs in the red marrow found within the cavities of certain bones. Energy storage. Lipids (fats) stored in adipose cells of the yellow marrow serve as an energy reservoir. The whole package of bones, cartilage, ligaments, and tendons that make up the human skeletal system account for about 20 percent of our body weight — not much for the big job of keeping us moving and healthy. To ensure that your bones stay healthy, aim to consume at least 1,200mg of calcium every day. The best sources of calcium include milk, yogurt and cheese. Other good sources include broccoli, kale, canned salmon with the bones and calcium-fortified...
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...Osteoporosis Author's Name Institutional Affiliation Osteoporosis Introduction Osteoporosis is a bone disease whereby the bone is prone to fracture. The name “osteoporosis”comes from a Greek word that means “ bone pore” (Rubenstein, et al 2007). What happens here is the bone mineral density (BMD) starts to reduce. The microarchitecture also reduces in the bone prompting the protein variety to be changed. WHO (1994) defines this condition as having a BMD of 2.5 standard deviation from the normal bone mass. Typically, there two types of osteoporosis namely: type 1 and type 2 .Type 1 osteoporosis mainly occurs in women after menopause. It is also referred to as “postmenopause osteoporosis”. Type 2 often happens after the age of 75. The latter affects men and women in the ratio of 1:2 respectively. There is also secondary osteoporosis which occurs in both men and women of all ages. This type of osteoporosis is rare as it is mostly as a result of lifestyle (Rubenstein, et al. 2007). Lifestyle change is key in the reduction of secondary osteoporosis (Calvert & Old, 2004). Diet change is essential in keeping the disease away. This entails a more healthy diet full of nutrients and loads of water. Exercise is also important but one has to keep in mind that the exercise regime has to be safe. By doing this one avoids fractures. History of Osteoporosis A biologist called Astley Cooper was the first to discover the existence of this condition. Nevertheless, Jean lobstein a...
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...BIO 210 Test 2 Study Guide: Chapter 4: 1. Define: Cell – basic unit of life Tissue – groups of similar cells Organ – contains 2 or more types of tissues Organ System – organs that work closely together 2. What are the common functions of: Epithelial tissue – covers and lines things – protects. Connective tissue – binds and supports – provides shape and structure. Muscle Tissue – contraction of muscles and movement. Nerve Tissue – sends signals and impulses – communication. 3. Be able to compare and contrast examples of each tissue type. Know identifying features of each tissue. EPITHELIAL TISSUE – 6 KINDS - all have free space at their apical surface. Simple squamous epithelial tissue – lung and kidney glomerulus – 1 layer of flattened sacs – very thin. Stratified squamous epithelial tissue – epidermis – multiple layers of flattened sacs. Simple cuboidal epithelial tissue – kidney tubules – 1 layer – rounded cube shaped cells. Simple Columnar epithelial tissue – digestive or GI tract – 1 layer – column shaped cells – nuclei at basal membrane. Pseudostratified columnar epithelial tissue – trachea lining – false multiple layers of column shaped cells – cilia (hair) – goblet cells. Transitional epithelial tissue – urinary bladder – domed shaped apical cells – looks like forks in the road. CONNECTIVE TISSUE – 11 KINDS – Areolar connective tissue – papillary region of the dermis – fibroblasts, collagen and elastic fibers – looks like a spider web. ...
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...Some tissues that are in this chapter are nervous tissue, muscular tissue, connective tissue and bone tissue . Nerve tissue is the way the organs of the nervous system, which consists of the bodies of nerve cells (neurons) and its extensions, and the glia. This tissue consists of cells called neurons very specialized and glial cells that support and nutrition to the above. Nerve cells or neurons: By stars and with many extensions. Are specialized to transmit nerve impulses. They are the only cells that do not play, and when they die could not be replaced. Glial cells: helper cells are to protect and carry food to neurons. Some features are the reception, conduction and transmission of nerve impulses. To detect, transmit, analyze and use information generated by sensory stimuli represented by heat, light, mechanical energy and changes in the external and internal environment. Organize and coordinate directly or indirectly, the operation of most of the body, including motor function, visceral, endocrine and psychological (Marieb & Hoehn, 2010, p. 134). Its main function for muscular tissues is movement. That will be of three types, movement of all internal structures: it consists of smooth muscle tissue and vessels will encounter, visceral walls and glands. Outward movement, characterized by manipulation and motion in our environment. is characterized by being composed of striated muscle. And automatic movement: it works by itself, is the heart muscle. Striated muscle tissue(Bailey...
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...OSTEOGENSIS Intramembranous ossification * Mesenchymal cells differentiate to form osteoblasts * Osteoblasts begin secreting a matrix * Osteoblasts become trapped in the lacunae * Osteoblasts differentiate and form osteocytes * More osteoblasts are produced, thus move outward * Eventually, osteon, compact bone is formed *Mention endosteum around spongy bone Ex: dermal bones, flat bones in skull, sesamoid Endochondral ossification * First Hyaline cartilage model is formed - Mesenchymal cells differentiate to form -Chondroblasts - Chondroblasts begin secreting a matrix - Chondroblast become Chondrocytes trapped in lacunae - Cartilage model is formed surrounded by perichondrium * Endochondral Bone Development * Blood vessels in perichondrium bring in osteoblast to form periosteum collar * Perichondrium turns into Periosteum * Hypertrophy (cell enlargement) and death of cartilage cells occur at primary ossification center * Bone begins to replace dead cartilage (osteoblast form spicules) * Formation of secondary ossification center in epiphysis * Bone replaces cartilage * Hyaline cartilage remains at epipysial plate and articular surfaces for life Ex: long bones (appendages) Sliding Filament Theory 1. Motor neuron releases Acetylcholine (ACH) at the neuromuscular junction. 2. Sarcolemma receives ACH and spreads an action potential (AP). 3. AP travels down the T -tubules...
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...Chapter 1: Introduction to Zoology Concept of Science • Frings and Frings - defined science as an organized body of knowledge that is gained and verified by exact observation and experimentation and organized by logical thinking. • Schafersman - defined science as a method of discovering reliable knowledge about nature. • Science is factual. • Science is not merely compiled. • Science is a way of asking questions about the natural world. • Guided by natural laws (physical & chemical). • Questions must be testable. Always open to new evidence. • Falsifiable. • It applies scientific and CRITICAL THINKING. When is scientific thinking applied? 1. When one uses the scientific method 2. When one investigate nature or the universe 3. Practice by all scientists 4. Not reserved solely for scientist, anyone can think like a scientist Fields of Science 1. Social Science – deals with human relationships 2. Abstract science – deals with abstract ideas 3. Natural sciences • Physical Science – deals with non-living entity • Biological Science – deals with the living entity The Scientific Method - The most important tool in search for truth - An organized method of gathering information based on observation and controlled testing of hypothesis 1. Observation and/or Review of Literature 2. Problem 3. Hypothesis Formulation 4. Testing of hypothesis 5. Conclusions or generalizations Theory Scientific fact/principle/law Theory – is...
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...ANATOMY: Skeletal System is comprised of 206 individual bones in an adult human. The bones of Skeletal System are divided into two type i.e. * Axial Skeleton * Appendicular Skeleton Axial skeleton of the body contains 80 bones in the following regions. * Skull: Except for Mandible (lower jaw) it has 22 bones fused together. * Hyoid: It is the only bone not forming a joint with any other bone. It lies inferior to the Mandible. * Auditory Ossicles: Malleus, Incus and Stapes (bones of middle ear) are altogether known as Auditory Ossicles. These are smallest bones found inside the cavity of Temporal Bone * Ribs: There 12 pair of ribs together with sternum forming Ribcage. * Sternum: It is a thin knife shape bone situated along anterior side of Thoracic Region. * Vertebral Column: It is comprised of 26 vertebrae and are named by regions Cervical (7 bones), Thoracic (12 bones), Lumbar (5 bones), Sacrum (5 bones) and Coccyx (4 bones). Appendicular skeleton is comprised of 126 bones in the following regions. * Upper limbs contains bones of the upper arm. * Lower Limbs contains bones like Tibia and Fibula of Lower Leg and bones of feet. * Pelvic Girdle is formed of right and left Hip Bones * Pectoral Girdle consists of Left and Right Clavicles and Left and Right Scapulae. Occupying the 30% to 40% of body mass is comprised of non-living bone matrix and small bone cells. These bones cells allow following functions. * Growth and development ...
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...2.1 Bone classification and its cellular structure There are two major types of bone. They denote different stages of a bone lifecycle. 1. Woven Bone – It is an unorganized and premature bone that is found in either growing bones or at fracture sites as newly-formed bone. 2. Lamellar Bone – It is a mature bone that results from the further remodeling of woven bone. Lamellar bone may be further divided into: a. Cortical Bone – It is a dense or compact bone, which constitutes approximately 80% of the skeleton. It is approximately 20% porous and consists of a dense bundle of vascular channels containing blood vessels surrounded by mature bone. It forms the middle 80% of long bones of the body – tibia, fibula in the lower leg, femur in the upper leg, the radius and ulna in the lower arm, and the humerus in the upper arm. b. Cancellous Bone – It is a spongy bone, which constitutes approximately 20% of the skeleton. It is approximately 70% porous, highly vascularized and consists of loosely formed matrix of beams designed to withstand the principal stresses and strains applied to the bone. The density of cortical bone is four to six times higher than cancellous bone. Cancellous bone constitutes the remaining 20% of bone located at the ends of the long bones and predominates in the pelvis and the 33 vertebrae from the neck to the tailbone. A fibrous membrane called the periosteum covers bone. In general, bone constitutes minerals, proteins, hormones, water, other molecules...
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...Storage of minerals e. Fat storage f. Blood cell production 2. Compare compact and spongy bone. Compact bone is dense bone with very few spaces and is covered by a nourishing membrane called the periosteum. Spongy bone is identified by its many spaces that are filled with red bone marrow, which produces red blood cells. 3. Describe the structure of a long bone. Where are the yellow and red marrow found in adults? A long bone in the human body contains both compact bone and spongy bone. The compact bone is found on the outer surface of the bone and compose the shaft. The spongy bone is found at the ends of the long bone. Yellow bone marrow it found in the central shaft of the long bone surrounded by the compact bone. Red bone marrow is found in spaces of the spongy bone. 4. Describe the structure of an osteon, and explain the function of osteocytes and the central canal. The osteon consists of a central canal surrounded by concentric rings of osteocytes (mature bone cells) in a rigid matrix. O steocytes are located within a lacuna in the matrix. Canals connect the lacunae to each other and to the central canal. This allows for the transport of items between the cells and the blood vesels in the central canal. 5. Describe the formation of bone in a fetus. Explain how bone growth continues after birth. During fetal development, most of the skeleton is first formed of cartilage. Cartilage cells actively divide, allowing the skeleton to grow...
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...AP1 Fall 2014 Final Exam Take Home – Due at 5 pm on October 29th. • 1. Homeostasis is an important theme in studying the human body. Discuss homeostatic processes in each of the organ systems we covered this semester. Be sure to include discussion of negative feedback, set points, receptors and effectors. (7 points each) 2. Homeostasis- The tendency of a living body to maintain relatively stable internal conditions in spite of greater changes in its external environment. (Saladin, 2015) a. Integumentary System – Homeostasis is critical for our body function, in order to stay in homeostasis the body goes through a process called negative feedback. Negative feedback mechanism in the integumentary system goes through 4 steps in order to maintain homeostasis; 1. There is a stimulus or change in the body. Example. Change in the body temperature. a. If the body is too cold it will trigger shivering to warm your body. b. If your body is too hot it will trigger sweating to release heat. 2. The sensor or receptor (sensory neuron) detects change in your body. 3. The control center (brain) sends out signals and messages to the effector. 4. The effector (muscle or gland) is in charge of restoring the body back to homeostasis. (Saladin, 2015) The body must regulate its own body temperature. Our normal set point is 98.6.When we are overheating our body responds in numerous ways in an effort to cool itself, such as sweating. Alternatively, if our body temperature...
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...Structure of the Skeletal System Axial Skeleton: Altogether there are 80 bones in the axial skeleton, these 80 bones provide support and protection for the main area of the body. The axial skeleton is made up of bones such as the, skull (which provides protection for the brain). thorax(which protects the heart, lungs, esophagus, and big vessels such as the aorta and venae cavae of the thorax. vertebral column(which mainly protects the spinal cord). If we didn’t have these bones our major organs would be at constant risk of becoming damaged and causing serious harm to ourselves. Appendicular Skeleton: The human appendicular skeleton is made up of 126 bones and are the bones of the upper limbs, the lower limbs, the pectoral...
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...Human Anatomy & Physiology, 10e, (Marieb) Chapter 6 Bones and Skeletal Tissue 6.1 Matching Questions Figure 6.1 Using Figure 6.1, match the following bone types with the numbered structure: Flat, long, irregular, short, sesamoid A) Irregular B) Flat C) Sesamoid D) Short E) Long 1) Bone 1. Section: 6.3 Learning Outcome: 6.6 Global LO: G2 HAPS LO: HAPS1, HAPS2 Bloom's Level: 2 Comprehension 2) Bone 2. Section: 6.3 Learning Outcome: 6.6 Global LO: G2 HAPS LO: HAPS1, HAPS2 Bloom's Level: 2 Comprehension 3) Bone 3. Section: 6.3 Learning Outcome: 6.6 Global LO: G2 HAPS LO: HAPS1, HAPS2 Bloom's Level: 2 Comprehension 4) Bone 4. Section: 6.3 Learning Outcome: 6.6 Global LO: G2 HAPS LO: HAPS1, HAPS2 Bloom's Level: 2 Comprehension 5) Bone 5. Section: 6.3 Learning Outcome: 6.6 Global LO: G2 HAPS LO: HAPS1, HAPS2 Bloom's Level: 2 Comprehension 6) Bone 6. Section: 6.3 Learning Outcome: 6.6 Global LO: G2 HAPS LO: HAPS1, HAPS2 Bloom's Level: 2 Comprehension 7) Bone 7. Section: 6.3 Learning Outcome: 6.6 Global LO: G2 HAPS LO: HAPS1, HAPS2 Bloom's Level: 2 Comprehension Answers: 1) B 2) E 3) B 4) A 5) E 6) C 7) D Figure 6.2 Using Figure 6.2, match the following: A) A B) D C) C D) B 8) Compact bone. Section: 6.4 Learning Outcome: 6.7 Global LO: G2 HAPS LO: HAPS1, HAPS2 Bloom's Level: 2 Comprehension 9) Location of the epiphyseal line. Section: ...
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...Michael Howard Professor Oltmann BIO 1322 June 26, 2015 Chapter 10 (10.1) Oxidation and Reduction Oxidative Stress- The imbalance between the point the production of reactive compounds and the body’s ability to protect against their adverse effects. Oxidation- The process of losing an electron during a chemical reaction. Free radical- An unstable atom with an unpaired electron in its outermost shell. 10.2 Defense Against Free Radicals Antioxidant- A substance that has the ability to prevent or repair the damage caused by oxidation. Tocopherols- The active form of Vitamin E. The most active form. (Four different) Carotenoids- Six-hundred naturally occurring pigments synthesized by plants, algae, and photosynthetic bacteria. Colors range from yellow to orange to red; three are converted into vitamin A. Isoflavones- Poly phenolic compounds that are capable of exerting estrogen similar effects. Phytochemicals produced in legumes; soybeans main source. Flavonoids- Found in fruit and vegetables, tea, red wine, dark chocolate. Polyphenolic (phytochemicals) molecules containing 15 carbon atoms and are soluble in water Anthocyanin- Vacuolar plant pigments that appear red, purple, or blue. Found in berries, grapes, and red cabbage. Vitamin E, Vitamin C, and beta-carotene are micronutrients that are known to have antioxidant roles. 10.3 Vitamin E Megadoses- An intake of a of a nutrient beyond what is needed to prevent a deficiency or what’s found in a balanced...
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...Tissues, Cells and Organs The human body consists of many millions of cells. The cell is the basic structural unit of the body. A typical body cell has the following features; A cell membrane – this acts as a boundary for the cell contents. It also acts as a barrier, allowing certain substances into the cell, while keeping other substances out. The cell membrane is said to be ‘selectively permeable’. A nucleus – this determines what type of cell it will be, e.g. liver cell, nerve cell, skin cell,…. The ‘information’ that determines this is located on long, threadlike structures called chromosomes, which are only found in the nucleus. The cell cytoplasm – this is a ‘jelly-like’ substance found outside of the nucleus. This is where most of the chemical reactions performed by the cell take place. These chemical reactions are controlled by specialized proteins called enzymes. Mitochondria – these are small oval shaped structures located in the cell cytoplasm. This is where the energy releasing chemical reactions take place. Cells that are active, have a lot of mitochondria; e.g. muscle and liver cells. While cells that are less active, only have a few mitochondria; e.g. skin cells and fat cells. A collection of similar cells that work together to perform a particular function, is known as a tissue. There are 4 basic tissue types found in the body; -- epithelial, -- muscle, -- nervous and – connective. Epithelial tissue is the type of tissue found...
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