Risk Factors of Cancer and HIV/AIDS
Michaila Shaak
Psych 627
05/11/2015
Professor Rebecca Gazda

Risk Factors of Cancer and HIV/AIDS
Cancer and HIV/AIDS are both deadly diseases which causes the body to turn against itself making normal functioning a danger (Straub, 2012). Cells of the body are intended to divide and replenish, but when abnormal cells do this, they become malignant tumors which spread throughout the body (Straub, 2012). Though some cancers can be caused by lifestyle choices and others have a stronger genetic component, none discriminates. Cancer can affect every gender, age, culture and ethnicity (Straub, 2012). Though HIV/AIDS can also be found throughout the population, the way that it is acquired is much different than cancer which cannot be passed from person to person (Straub, 2012). The paper will cover the immune surveillance model of cancer in psychoneuroimmunology and address how it compares to the biphasic model. We will also explore the effects of psychosocial factors on cancer and HIV/AIDS, specifically strategies for coping and stress management in cancer patients as well as the epidemiology of HIV/AIDS.
According to Straub (2012), cancers can be divided into four types. The first and most common of these are carcinomas, which make up about 85 percent of all cancer that is diagnosed in adults (Straub, 2012). This type of cancer attack epithelial cells or the inner and outer surfaces of the body including the major organs and the skin (Straub, 2012). Because this accounts for such a large amount of the body it is no surprise that this is the most common cancer type. Second are sarcomas, which affect the muscles, bones and cartilage and account for only two percent of adult cancers (Straub, 2012). Next is lymphomas, which include cancers such as Hodgkin ’s disease, affecting the lymphatic system, specifically the lymph nodes (Straub, 2012). The fourth and final cancer type is leukemia, which affects the blood cells and blood-forming tissues such as bone marrow (Straub, 2012).
Though our individual combination of risk factors for cancer are as different as our lives are. However, there are a number or psychosocial risk factors that have links to specific cancers. For example, gender is linked to cancer acquisition, specifically breast cancer, as women are more likely to acquire cancer before the age of 60 (Straub, 2012). Women who are of African American decent are also at a greater risk as are women of lower socioeconomic status (Artherholt & Fann, 2012). High stress levels has also been found to lower the effectivity of the immune system, putting those with high stress levels at higher risk of cancer (Straub, 2012). Therefore, women who are already stressed due to racially prejudices and low incomes have the highest risk of breast cancer (Artherholt & Fann, 2012).
Prostate cancer is specific to males, putting them at a higher risk of acquisition by default (Straub, 2012). Much like women, men are also influenced by their socioeconomic level and by their stress levels (Straub, 2012). According to Artherholt and Fann (2012) lack of social support affects both the onset of cancer as well as the course of it. While still being researched the belief is that moods such as stress and depression can affect how a person responds to treatment for cancer and the social support that they receive from family and friends helps to keep moods elevated. Though psychological stress itself has not been linked to the development of cancer, stress induced behaviors have been (Straub, 2012). For instance, patients with high stress levels might take up smoking or drinking alcohol, which can lead to a person developing cancer (Artherholt & Fann, 2012).
The immune surveillance model of cancer focuses on the ability of the immune system to identify and destroy abnormal cells, thereby functioning as a primary defense against cancer (Swann & Smyth, 2007). In the study of psychoneuroimmunology, psychosocial risk factors are their influence is examined such as the role of stress on the immune system (Straub, 2012). If an immune system is weakened by stress, it is less likely to be able to suppress or destroy abnormal cells or tumors (Swann & Smyth, 2007). Therefore, situations that induce high amounts of stress also reduce immune activity and increase the likelihood or cancer acquisition (Straub, 2012).
According to the bisphasic model, not all stressors are bad or cause immune risk (Straub, 2012). Instead, is similar to the immune surveillance model of cancer in that it also deals with the body’s reaction to cancer. In this model, daily acute stressors are actually beneficial and serve to boost the immune system much like an immunization would against diseases (Spilker & Maxian, 1990). However, long term or chronic stressors would serve to harm the immune system as it does not allow the immune system to be tested for a short period of time in order to learn to react but continues to be hindered without rest (Straub, 2012). This model suggests that the right kind of stress can actually help us to prepare for later episodes of chronic stress.
Psychosocial factors can affect individuals with Cancer and HIV/AIDS. Certain factors such as genetics in cancer are unavoidable and sharing blood from mother to child is unavoidable in HIV/AIDS (Straub, 2012). However, there are many risk factors associated with acquiring HIV/AIDS that are controllable. Such risk factors include risky sexual behaviors, such as unprotected sex with multiple partners and the use of intravenous drugs (Straub, 2012). Stress while linked to both HIV/AIDS and cancer doesn’t necessarily cause both it can impact a person’s ability to fight both and increase the likelihood for engaging in risky behaviors (Segerstrom & Miller, 2004). According to Segerstrom and Miller (2004), individuals that experience intense long-term stress can have problems including a weakened immune system which means the people are more prone to viral infections and can experience trouble with sleep, depression, and anxiety. Additionally, stress, anxiety, and depression run at epidemic proportions in HIV-infected persons which have clinically relevant and consistent influences on the progression of the disease (Leserman, 2008). In both cancer and HIV/AIDS a person’s psychological stress and emotional wellbeing can impact the course of treatment and the progression of both. According to Leserman (2008), individuals with chronic depression are twice as likely to die from AIDS related causes.
Coping methods for both HIV/AIDS and cancer deal with the same methods in order to help a person relieve stress especially following the diagnosis (Straub, 2012). Emotional and social support are recommended to help with coping with stress along with stress management such as relaxation and mediation. Social support is important for a person and if the person is unable to get it from family and friends they can getting it from group meetings which will benefit them in learning what others have gone through and the shared experiences they have with other people (Straub, 2012). The can also go to counseling or therapy in order to cope with the stress they are feeling.
According to Straub (2012) the exact cause of HIV/AIDS is not known, though it is believed to have begun in Africa. International travel has been linked to the fast distribution and spread of the disease along with high risk sexual behaviors (Sharp & Hahn, 2011). The earliest seen case of HIV according to Sharp and Hahn (2011), was in 1959 in the Congo and the genetic analysis of the blood sample obtained from the man suggested it may have stemmed from a single virus. The virus then spread to other continents and was discovered in the mid-70s in the United States as rare cases of cancer, pneumonia and other illnesses began to be reported by doctors across the nation (Sharp & Hahn, 2011). In 1981 the first cases of AIDS as well as the term acquired immunodeficiency syndrome were seen (Sharp & Hahn, 2011).
Both cancer and HIV/AIDS are deadly diseases that originate due to the body failing to perform its functions properly or failing to keep up with the increased demand, specifically in the immune system (Straub, 2012). While there are a number of psychosocial risk factors that can be avoided to limit the likelihood of acquiring HIV/AIDS, the avoidance of such behaviors does not have as drastic of a limitation on acquiring cancer which has a strong genetic component (Straub, 2012). However, one factor that effects both equally is stress. Due to the effect of stress on the immune system, high levels of stress can lower the functions of the immune system and put patients at higher risk of acquiring cancer and HIV/AIDS since their bodies are in a weakened state and are not able to fight them off (Straub, 2012). By having a better understanding of the psychosocial risk factors associated with developing these diseases, preventative strategies can be taught at earlier ages and patients can take steps towards a healthier and safer lifestyle.

References
Artherholt, S. B., Fann, J. R. (2012). Psychosocial care in Cancer. Current Psychiatry Reports, 14(1). 23-29
Leserman, J. (2008). Role of depression, stress, and trauma in HIV disease progression. Psychosomatic Medicine, 70(5): 539-545.
Moreno-Smith, M., Lutgendorf, S.K., & Sood, A.K. (2010). Impact of stress on cancer metastasis. Future Oncology, 6(12): 1863-1881
National Cancer Institute. (2014). Common cancer types. Retrieved from http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/types/commoncancers
Segerstrom, S. C., & Miller, G. E. (2004). Psychological stress and the human immune system: a meta-analytic study of 30 years of inquiry. Psychological Bulletin, 130(4): 601-630.
Sharp, P. & Hahn, B. (2011). Origins of HIV and the AIDS pandemic. Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Medicine, 1(1).
Spilker, R. L. and Maxian, T. A. (1990). "A mixed-penalty finite element formulation of the linear biphasic theory for soft tissues." International Journal for Numerical Methods in Engineering, 30(5): 1063-1082
Straub, R.O. (2012). Health psychology: A biopsychosocial approach (3rd ed.) New York, NY: Worth.
Swann, J. and Smyth, M. (2007). Immune surveillance of tumors. The Journal of Clinical Investigation, 117(5): 1137-1146.
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