7/7/2014

7 Centuries of History: Colonization and Decolonization of Indonesia

“If you are sufficiently determined to achieve something, than you will find a way of doing so.,” an Indonesian proverb utters. Spread across thousands of islands between Asia and Australia, today the Republic of Indonesia is the world's largest Muslim population in Southeast Asia as well as Southeast Asia's biggest economy. Nonetheless, the road to Indonesian success on freedom and independence was full of hurdles and challenges. Throughout the centuries, Indonesia faced Portuguese, Dutch and Japanese invasions, as well as governmental conflicts, terrorism, and natural disasters. In the hands of colonizing powers and invaders, Indonesian independence was not proclaimed until the mid-twentieth century. However, its history goes back to 14th century, way before the very first colonialism spark in Europe.
Despite the scarcity of information regarding 14th- 15th century Indonesia, the presence of two dominant states Majapahit in East Java and Malacca in Malaya can be mentioned. Like many island countries, landforms and climate of the region had great significance on agriculture, trade and state formation in Indonesia. Java is the largest piece of the Indonesian island group, thus being land based unlike other states. The island is divided into east and west by a set of volcanic mountains, forming a spine along the island. The other mountains and highlands are the primary cause of isolated region formation throughout Java, which are also among the richest wet-rice cultivation provinces in the world. Communication in Java was mainly provided with relatively short rivers, longer ones (Brantas and Sala) being the centers of major kingdoms. During mid-17th century, Javanese isolation was reduced with a road system that consisted of tollgates and permanent bridges. However, due to the harsh weather conditions during the wet season and the vulnerability of the roads, they were most of the time impassable. Population of java in the 18th century estimates to 3 million, being another primary cause of isolation throughout the island. Regions under population led to vast uninhibited areas between populated districts. Unlike Java, other pre-colonial Indonesian states were seaborne. With a total population of 200,000 people in the whole of Malay Peninsula, land surface consisted of mountains, highlands, forests and swamps. Roads were not as common as they were in Java, thus the seas were the highways. Home of many ports, attention in these states were directed to hinterlands as places where important trade products such as pepper and gold were found. These islands primarily depended on external trade.

The limited population resulted in a limited base for taxation, army personnel and labor for rice cultivation. Centralized authority was difficult to form and hard to maintain due to the physical isolation of populated territories and poor communication. The Javanese authorities considered the solution to be a system limited to kingship, with considerable autonomy granted to regional overlords. Like Java, outer island empires were impelled to give autonomy to vassal lords. The tension between kings and regional authorities, and the collision between central and regional interests made the states of pre-colonial Indonesia frail. Regional oppression had to have a limit, the reason being the existence of large uninhibited tracts, which made it possible for the population to move to a new area beyond their lord’s control if oppression reached intolerable limits. On the other hand, central leaders used three major techniques to maintain their authority. Regional overlords and other potential opponents such as prices and leaders were accorded wealth, prestige, protection, and the autonomy needed to keep their support. Central leaders also tried to create a cult of glory about their people and court and tried to make it look like they had the support of supernatural forces. The most crucial technique of all was the usage of military strength to crush any opposition. All pre-colonial Indonesian states depended ultimately on a superior military power. A successful leader stayed on top of the precarious system by balancing and manipulating the interests of those below him, by demonstrating martial skills, and by appearing to have the support of the supernatural. (Ricklefs, ?) A vast use of spies kept the government officials informed and the interests of other countries were tied to a mutual future by political marriages.
Hayam Wuruk is known to be the leader Majapahit, the most important state of pre-colonial Indonesia in early 15th century, during its golden age. In spite of the Javanese civil war between 1405 and 1406, disputes on throne successions in the 1450s and the major princely rebellion in 1468; the royal line remained its power without any adjustments. Even though Majapahit was not the central authority, it had trade connections that linked many regions. Quickly turning from a basic state into a trade empire, Majahapit was claimed to have relations with Champa, Cambodia, Siam, southern Burma, Vietnam and China. Later in the history, Majapahit will be considered as the processor of today’s Indonesian borders. In late 14th – early 15th century, the importance of Majahapit started to decline, and eventually left its place to the new international trade center: Malacca, which quickly turned into an enormous success. Malacca is often regarded as an example of Indonesian “entrepot state”, no significant agriculture commodity was produced, and food was imported for the people. In mid-fifteenth century, Malaccan army successfully conquered both sides of the food, tin, gold and pepper producing Straits, thus becoming wealthier and strategically more crucial. By the late 15th century, Malaccan Empire was in charge of the main populated centers in Malay Peninsula and the central east coast of Sumatra with trading networks that reached out to each Indonesian island. This system was linked to routes reaching westward to India, Persia, Arabia, Syria, East Africa and the Mediterranean, northward to Siam and Pegu, and eastward to China, perhaps even Japan, hence being the greatest trading system in the world at this time. The spices of Indonesia were the prize products of the system and Javanese rice kept it alive. The key to Malacca’s success was not only the good ports, but also the policies of government officials that succeeded in creating an international community of traders who found its facilities advantageous. However, the Portuguese were soon to discover that conquering an already-existing port was easier than creating such community. (Ricklefs, ?)
The Portuguese arrival to Indonesia was the precursor of colonialism in Indonesia. Their aim was to dominate the trade system, get a hold of spices cheaply and to extend the missionary efforts of the Catholic Church. With an advanced technology and military system and local alliances, Portuguese easily invaded Malacca in April 1511; although the Asian trade was still not dominated. Portuguese missionary efforts started to decline in the latter half of the 16th century, as well as their effect on Indonesian culture. The most influential effect of Portuguese on the island country was the first signs of Christianity. The Christian community has survived to our day, and is vital on creating a sense of shared interest with European countries. With the Portuguese conquest, Malacca lost its property of being an international trade center. However, the Portuguese were soon to leave their place to the Dutch East-India Company (VOC).
In 1619, the VOC conquered Jayakarta, a west Javan city today known as Jakarta, and quickly had a big say in the internal affairs of the state. The VOC’s conquest brought better organization, weapons, ships and a financial base but like Portuguese, failed to regulate the Malaccan trade. Understanding the importance of Malaccan trade VOC later formed a permanent ledge in Java, the state which would later turn into the richest colonial property on earth.
After the bankruptcy of VOC in 31 December 1799 VOC possessions were transferred to the Dutch state, which led to the Javanese uprising the “Java War of 1825-1830”. After the suppression of the uprising, a new system originated: The Cultivation System. The local Javanese were forced to work on government-owned plantations for sixty days a year. Forcing cultivation and indentured labor, the new system did not fall short on bringing wealth to Dutch. With the arrival of the liberal period, the Cultivation System was abolished after 1870. In 1901 an innovative policy, which is the groundwork of Indonesia today, was adopted. The Ethical Policy increased investments in indigenous education and sparked the first modest political reforms. Upgrading infrastructure of ports and roads, modernizing economy, supplying local community with wages, regulating commerce and increasing military power were prioritized. This policy also raised the importance of occupations such as soldier, administrator, manager, teacher and pioneer by creating a privileged upper social class. By 1952, Dutch engineers built and upgraded bridges, railways, harbors, irrigation systems in rice fields, roads and 140 public drinking water systems, thus creating the economic base of the colonial state. Even though the Dutch administration was innovative, there have been cases of cruelty by police and military mostly in Aceh. In early 20th century, colonial borders reached Indonesian borders of today.
The Dutch rule in Indonesia was also the time when the first nationalist movements started. The first small nationalist group “Budi Utomo” was formed in October 1908. Four years after, on September 10 1912 the first Indonesian nationalist mass movement Sarekat Islam was formed and reached 93,000 members in just 3 months. The chiefs of the movement were usually students and professors, some of which were educated in Netherlands. After World War 1, Dutch responded the nationalist movements with extreme measures. Many were arrested, including the first president, Sukarno, first Vice-President, Mohammad Hatta, and the first Prime Minister, Sutan Sjahrir. Later in 1914 Indies Social Democratic Association was founded, which developed into the Communist Party of Indonesia (PKI) in 1924. Harsh Dutch repression triggered the growth of PKI and the group reached over 3,000 members in 1925. PKI, alongside Sukarno, was later the leader of protests against Dutch colonialism with the help of urban workers. Dutch military and police, eventually resulting in 13,000 arrests, put down the movement. In 1928, a youth conference was held and the motto “One nation, one language, one people for Indonesia” became the driving force for the people of Indonesia.
The Dutch rule in Indonesia ended after the World War 2, but freedom for Indonesian people was still to come. In 1940, the Nazi Germany invaded Netherland and the Japanese government got the full control of the former Dutch colony in March 1942. By July 1942, Sukarno earned Indonesian public support for the Japanese war effort, thus decorated by the Japanese emperor in 1943. During the Japanese rule, Indonesians who lived in big cities faced torture, sex slavery, arbitrary arrest, execution and other war crimes along with those who were considered as lower class citizens. Four to ten million Indonesians were taken away as “romushas”, forced laborers for the Japanese military. Of 270,000 Javanese romushas only 52,000 were able to go back to their hometown, thousands died of starvation and ill-treatment. A late-published UN record showed that 4,000,000 lost their lives during the Japanese invasion in Indonesia. The Japanese brutality led to the organization of Indonesian Independence Committee, BPUPKI. During the first meeting that was held in May 1945, Indonesia’s soon-to-be first Minister of Justice Soepomo’s speech on national integration and unity guided the people of Indonesian to independence. It was also suggested by Muhammad Yamin that the former borders of the Dutch East Indie colony should be used to define the new territory, which included Sabah, Malaya, Sarawak and Portuguese Timor. The first constitution was drafted by BPUPKI later in 1945, which is still in use with some additions and little changes. On August 9 1945, Sukarno, Hatta and Radjiman met the Marshall of the Japanese Imperial Army, Marshal Hisaich Terauchi, and returned Indonesia with expected good news. Japanese government was planning to announce Indonesian independence on August 24. However, Japan had bigger struggles regarding the World War 2.
Even after the Japanese surrender on August 15 1945, Indonesian determination on independence did not diminish. Sukarno and Hatta annunciated independence on August 17 1945. The following day Sukarno and Hatta were declared as the first President and the Vice-President respectively by the KNIP, Central Indonesian National Committee. The Indonesian National Revolution evoked Japanese, Dutch and British violence from August 1945 to December 1946, for that reason it was named as the “Bersiap Period”, the Indonesian word meaning, “get ready” or “be prepared”. The last troops had been departed by July 1946, with a total of 3,500 European deaths and 20,000 missing military personnel. The Dutch effort of re-colonizing Indonesia with the help of Britain ended in December 1949, due to the international pressure. After the recognition of Indonesian independence, the last federal states joined the territories and the single unitary Republic of Indonesia was affirmed on 17 August 1950.
The following years of Sukarno’s presidency were filled with attempts on balancing hostile forces of the army and PKI, which was by the time the most crowded communist party outside USSR and China. On 30 September 1965, six most senior members of military and many government officials were executed, an estimate of 500,000 communists were killed, PKI was shut down with more than 1 million of its followers imprisoned; noted on history books as the “30 September Movement”. Forced to step down, Sukarno provided General Suharto with emergency powers, who later became the president in March 1967. Earning the name of “New Order Era”, Suharto’s presidency resulted in significant economic growth and vital foreign investments, even though corruption was common inside the major government offices. From 1969 to 1976, Indonesian borders enlarged significantly with the incorporation of West Papua and East Timor. The 1997 Asian crisis affected the Indonesian economy, causing the Indonesian rupiah to lose drastic value, at the same time facing severe drought and largest forest fires in history. With the approval of Suharto’s second term, “Indonesian 1998 Revolution” sparked. Massive protests and riots throughout the country forced Suharto to step down, leaving B. Jusuf Habibie as his successor. In 1999, a UN-sponsored referendum was held in East Timor, resulting in UN administration in East Timor, followed by the presidency of Abdurrahman Wahid in Indonesia. However, Wahid’s presidency ended when he was dismissed by the parliament because of the corruption and incompetence. Even though he refused to leave the palace, his former Vice President Megawati Sukarnoputri replaced Wahid. In spite of the common corruptions, constant protests against government and the instability of Indonesia’s political state, some steps toward a more democratic Indonesia have been taken. With the new constitutional changes in 2002, voters are able to elect a president and a vice president. As a multi-ethnic and multi-cultural country, Indonesia has also struggled with terrorism in the last millennium. The Islamist militant group Jemaah Islamiyah (JI), which is linked to Al-Qaeda is known to be responsible of 2002, 2005 Bali bombings and 2003, 2004, 2009 Jakarta bombings. Government, as well as Indonesian public tried to crack the group ever since. On 26 December 2006, massive earthquake and tsunami devastated parts of northern Sumatra.
From the 14th century to today, historical documents never fail to mention Indonesia. Back in 14th century, geographic characteristics of Indonesian islands were the reason of isolation, under population and a weak central government. Indonesia soon became an international trade center, thus was the target for colonizing powers. First country to invade Indonesia was Portugal; however, the invasion did not last long. The Dutch company VOC later was the colonizing power Indonesia. After the bankruptcy of VOC the Dutch government got the possession of Indonesia, suppressing a massive public protest “Java War of 1825-1830”. After World War 2, the last country to invade Indonesia was Japan. After many nationwide movements, protests and uprisings President Sukarno declared the freedom of the Republic of Indonesia on 17 August 1950. With many cases of corruption in its unstable government, Indonesia still has a long way to go before reaching a robust system. Nevertheless, as stated in the proverb, determination will never fail Indonesian people on reaching their ultimate goals.

Bibliography
"Indonesia Country Profile." BBC News. British Broadcasting Cooperation, 08 Apr. 2014. Web. 05 July 2014.
McDivitt, James F. "Indonesia." Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Encyclopedia Britannica, 10 June 2014. Web. 05 July 2014.
Ricklefs, M.C. A History of Modern Indonesia: C. 1300 to the Present. London: Macmillan, 1981. Print.
Zanden, J.L Van, and Daan Marks. An Economic History of Indonesia 1800-2010. London: Routledge, 2012. Print.