...___ Behaviorism Perspectives For the purpose of this paper the theories of John B. Watson and his introduction of behaviorism in 1913 and his eventual scandal and departure from the world of psychology will be discussed along with, Burrhus F. Skinner and his introduction of operant conditioning and its continued impact on the world of psychology and finally Edward Tolman and his theories of molar vs. molecular, goal-directedness, intervening variable and cognitive maps will be discussed. Each of these philosophers had their own theories regarding behaviorism and each of them had impacts on the behaviorism that we use in today’s psychology. First we will take a look at each of their individual theories on behaviorism, and then we will compare and contract those theories. In conclusion these theories will be reviewed along with the theory that has lasted the test of time. John B. Watson J. B. Watson introduced his psychological school of behavior theory in 1913. His theory was based on the control and prediction of behaviors. He set out to prove his theory with one of his most famous studies of little Albert B. He theorized that children had three basic emotional reactions, love, fear and rage. His experiment set out to prove that he could instill behaviors in Albert and control those behaviors. He began his experiment by introducing Albert to a white rat, when Albert would reach out to touch the rat he then would make a loud noise behind his head causing him to pull away...
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...Classical and Operant Conditioning BEH/225 Ah’Nonda Bates March 28, 2014 Classical and Operant Conditioning Two behavior modification techniques important to behavioral psychology are classical conditioning and operant conditioning. Classical conditioning and operant conditioning are both types of learning processes, but each with different focuses. Classical conditioning was developed by Ivan Pavlov. Ivan Pavlov contributed to the world of psychology through his study of behaviorism. His development of classical conditioning began through his experiments known as Pavlov’s Dogs. In these experiments, Pavlov studied classical conditioning, learning through association between environmental stimulus and natural occurring stimulus. Classical conditioning included four main principles: the unconditioned stimulus, the unconditioned response, the conditioned stimulus, and the conditioned response. An example of this type of learning process would be a person’s reaction to a cold medicine. The subject drinks the cold medicine and immediately becomes sick to their stomach and vomits due to having the flu. Over time, the subject becomes nauseated just at the sight of the cold medicine. The flu is the unconditioned stimulus, vomiting is the unconditioned response, the cold medicine is the controlled stimulus, and the nausea is the controlled response. Operant conditioning is a learning process that was developed by B.F. Skinner. B.F. Skinner also contributed through...
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...Phobias and Addictions Chantel Billingsley PSY/300 May 30, 2014 Brian Hawkins Abstract This paper provides a broad overview of phobias and addictions. The difference between classical conditioning and how it relates to phobias will be dicussed, as well as operant conditioning and how it develops into addictions. Distinguishing between classical and operant conditioning, will show the differences between the two. I will cover what extinction means and how it is achieved in both types of conditioning. "Phobia" means "morbid fear" in greek (What is Phobia, 2014). Fear is a natural response to a genuine danger. Phobias are the emotional and physical reactions to feared objects or situations; this fear becomes irrational and excessive. Feelings of horror, panic and terror may occur. Reactions become automatic and uncontrollable, taking over a person's thoughts and sometimes causing physical symptoms. These symptoms can include rapid heartbeat, shortness of breath, trembling and overwhelming desire to avoid the feared object or situation. There are three major categories of phobias. First category called specific phobias focuses on certain objects, animals, people and situations. Some of the most recognized phobias fall under this category; the fear of heights (acrophobia), the fear of spiders (arachnophobia) and the fear of enclosed spaces(claustrophobia). The second major category is the fear of open spaces (agoraphobia). Most individual...
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...The foundations of psychology were set upon the discovery of the relationship between biology and philosophy. The birth of psychology is a direct result of these two studies combining to make an intriguing study of human behaviors, emotions and reactions. Psychology became equally important to other studies when it became apparent that it reflected both biological aspects as well as aspects of philosophy. Combined, these two studies allowed the discovery that people exhibit behaviors and emotions for many reasons. Human’s exhibit behaviors(s) in reaction to environmental factors, taught behavior, natural instinct, as well as an array of other scenarios trigger such behaviors. “Humans are complex creatures whose psychological experience lies at the intersection of biology and culture”(Kowalski & Westen, 2005). Psychology was (in some perspectives) stumbled upon in very early biological studies. It was observed that patients with head trauma injuries were test subjects to the identification of the correlation between the human brain and physical responses. This discovery opened the door to the study of human psychology. The finding that the human brain interacted with the body in producing reactions and actions led to an entirely new world of study filled with fascinating aspects, now known as psychology. The foundation of psychology is built largely upon philosophy and was rooted from such philosophers such as Aristotle and Descartes...
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...Psychoanalytic theory vs behaviourism: motivation Freud's psychoanalytic theory with its model of the mind and its central concepts provides a better interpretation of one's behavior and accounts for behavior on a wider scope of issues than does the radical behaviorist theory of B. F. Skinner. Skinner successfully explains human behavior in terms of operant conditioning and reinforcing agents. He changes the focus from Freud's internalized (mental) processes to the importance of the external environment. Skinner emphasizes the importance of the directly observable behavior. However, he fails to completely account for behavior, excluding the original motivational drive. In contrast, Freud succeeds in construing the origins of behavior and motivation, which makes the psychoanalytic theory of Freud more adequate as a theory of personality. Throughout history humans have been puzzled by human behavior, the reasons behind it, and have been faced with the consequences of their own as well as others' behavior. Many studies have been done and theories developed in an attempt to explain this fascinating area of human existence. Among many theories and theorists, Freud's psychoanalytic and Skinner's radical behaviorist theories have been selected and looked at throughout the following paper. Theory of personality that Freud introduced together with its concepts, many deemed romantic, unprovable and sometimes obscene, has shaped the way humans view themselves in many cases...
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...language? Today we will talk about some of the hypotheses which have been suggested for how people learn (in general) and learn language (in particular). This child has learned sign-language from his parents – but how? NATURE vs. NURTURE People who argue for language learning by NATURE believe that humans are born with a built-in ability to learn language – that it is part of the structure of our brains. People who support NURTURE side of the argument believe that we learn language the same way we learn everything else, e.g. how to ride a bicycle, how to walk, how to fit into our society. BEHAVIORISM Based on experiments performed in the early part of the 20th century, many people believed that animals AND PEOPLE learned through a process of conditioning. For example, there were laboratory studies where rats were trained to push a button when a light came on. Each time the rat did this, it was given a piece of food. After a while, the rat would push the button every time the light came on. The rat had learned to associate pushing the button with getting food. This theory became known as behaviorism. STIMULUS > RESPONSE > REINFORCEMENT In Behaviorist learning theory, conditioning is the result of a three-stage process: Stimulus > Response > Reinforcement. In the rat experiment, the light coming on would be the stimulus, the rat pushing the button would be the response and the food would be the reinforcement...
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...demonstrated how conditioning can be used to learn new information and behaviors. Psychology students typically spend a great deal of time studying these different theories. Some theories have fallen out of favor, while others remain widely accepted, but all have contributed tremendously to our understanding of human thought and behavior. By learning more about these theories, you can gain a deeper and richer understanding of psychology's past, present and future. Behavioral Theories Behavioral psychology, also known as behaviorism, is a theory of learning based upon the idea that all behaviors are acquired through conditioning. Advocated by famous psychologists such as John B. Watson and B.F. Skinner, behavioral theories dominated psychology during the early half of the twentieth century. Today, behavioral techniques are still widely used in therapeutic settings to help clients learn new skills and behaviors. * What is Behaviorism? * Classical Conditioning * How Pavlov Discovered Classical Conditioning * Principles of Classical Conditioning * Operant Conditioning * Schedules of Reinforcement * What is Behavior Analysis? * Stages of Change * Conditioned Taste Aversions Cognitive Theories Cognitive theories of psychology are focused on internal states, such as motivation, problem solving, decision-making, thinking, and attention. * 4 Explanations for Forgetting * Attention * Cognitive Dissonance Theory * Left Brain vs. Right...
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...08/27/2014 Carl Grossen How and why do people develop phobias and addictions? Some people believe that these conditions come from a person’s environment and the way they were raised. There have been many studies to determine how people develop addictions through operant conditioning and how phobias develop through classical conditioning. To understand how these conditions develop one must first define and understand the differences between classical and operant conditioning. By learning how these conditions are created will in turn help achieve the process of extinction this is a technique to help overcome phobias and addictions. Classical and operant conditioning is two types of behaviors in psychology. These two processes are very different, but they both result in learning. Classical conditioning has an impact on behaviorism that is a school of thought in psychology. Behaviorism is a theory that is learned through experiences in the environment. Classical conditioning involves an environmental stimulus that automatically triggers a response. Phobias are created through classical conditioning. An example of this would be if a snake bit someone as a child they might form a phobia of snakes. Operant conditioning is a method of learning that happens through punishments or reinforcements to increase or decrease someone’s behavior. There are two types of reinforcements; one is positive reinforcements with this the behavior is strengthened by a direct reward. For example with a child...
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...Lifespan Development and Personality Jorge Delgadillo PSY/300 February 13, 2014 Professor Melanie Afshar There are many debates regarding nature vs. nurture starting with Plato and John Locke. Some such as Plato believe behavior and personality traits stem from ones genetics which are inherited from parents. Others such as John Locke believe one is born with a “blank slate” which means ones behavior and personality develops based on ones environment. Through examining the life of Justin Beiber, many influences of nature vs. nurture can be found; in addition the behaviorism theory can be applied to his life. Justin Beiber was fortunate enough to have the opportunity of being famous. For him it was not so much being at the right place at the right time, his loving mother put her son out there to be recognized and he sure was. After being signed by Usher as a solo artist his first record was released in November of 2009 and that’s when his life began to make a turn. As a new artist he believed in himself and having a positive image, “All our decisions are based on long-term decisions. I don't want to grow up and lose my young fans, singing inappropriate music” (Beiber). The more famous he became the more money he received and one could see he was becoming star-struck. He always wanted to send out a “positive message” to his fans so that they had someone to look up to since his fans were adolescents. Starting two years after his fame began to raise a scandal...
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...Nature vs. Nurture There is an issue that has been conferred upon by philosophers in the past and still so by scientists today. This issue is whether heredity or environment plays a greater role in the determining or shaping of an individual's behavior. It is known as the nature versus nurture debate. Numerous generations before us have deliberated on the reasons behind the development of human behavior. There have been many theories formulated to explain why humans behave the way they do. The surviving theories for behavior derive from physiological and sociological explanations. However, the two explanations have not always been compatible with each other. The famous nature vs. nurture debate over human behavior resulted from conflicting views between proponents of the physiological (nature) and sociological (nurture) explanations. Throughout history, research has swayed popularity back and forth between the theories. Yet, theorists have broken down the line separating nature and nurture. As of today, people utilize both explanations to explore human behavior. Way before our time, early philosophers endeavored to understand the human behavior. As early as 350 BC, such philosophers as Plato and Aristotle tried to understand behavior. The question of nature or nurture as the primary drive can be traced to these times. Plato believed behavior and knowledge was due to innate factors. Author Fiona Cowie states, "The claim that the character of our mental furniture is to...
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...PSY232 – Lifespan Development Topics to know Nature vs. Nurture – Heredity vs. Environment Continuous vs. discontinuous (stages) view of development Charles Darwin – survival of the fittest Sigmund Freud – psychoanalytic perspective Erikson – psychosocial theory – stages (1&2) Trust vs. Mistrust Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt Basic tenets of Behaviorism (Skinner) stimuli and responses positive & negative reinforcement Classical conditioning stimulus and response - conditioned and unconditioned extinction/habituation Critical/Sensitive periods/imprinting Lev Vygotsky sociocultural theory Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory Macro/Exo/Meso/Microsystems basic definition of each correlational study - +/- correlations difference between positive and negative experimental design dependent and independent variable ethical considerations in research studies genotype gametes phenotype vernix DNA ovum chromosome lanugo gene chorion mitosis (“t” for “2”) amnion meiosis umbilical cord zygote glial cells gametes dizygotic/monozygotic twins incomplete dominance neural tube Down Syndrome genetic counseling teratogen – their effects at what point in pregnancy Study Guide – Test 1 – ch. 1-6 neurotransmitters synaptic pruning amniocentesis chorionic villi sampling fetoscopy poverty rate/guaranteed income babies born addicted smoking and pregnancy FAS – fetal alcohol syndrome Rh factor incompatibility ...
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...Introduction to Psychology: January 12, 2015 3 Main Problems of Psychology 1) Determinism vs. Freewill * The idea that everything that happens has a cause (determinism) versus the belief that behavior is cause by a person’s independent decisions (freewill) 2) The Mind-Brain Problem * The philosophical question of how experience relates to the brain. 3) The Nature-Nurture Issue * “How do differences in behavior relate to differences in heredity and environment?” Intro to Psych: Wednesday, January 14 2015 Three major philosophical issues with psychology: Free Will vs. Determinism - Determinism: Everything that happens has a cause. - Free Will: the belief that behavior is cause by a person’s independent decisions The Mind-Brain Problem - The philosophical question of how experience relates to the brain. - How is brain activity linked with our experienced? - There is a close relationship with brain activity and psychological events - “Do we feel first, or do we think first?” Nature-Nurture Issue - “How do differences in behavior relate to differences in heredity and environment?” Milgram and the shock experiment test Psychiatry - different from psychology in the way that a psychiatrist can prescribe medication and psychologists can not. - branch of the medical field that focuses on the brain and mental disorders **Get to know both of the “What Psychologists Do” handouts from class Quick History of Psychology Early...
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...Chapter 4: Gender and Sexuality * What is sex? What is gender? How do they differ? * Summarize the main physical differences between females and males (not genitalia), such as life expectancy * Summarize the main psychological differences between females and males (such as aggression, social power, and social connections) * How do chromosomes determine sex? What role does the Y chromosome play? * What is intersexuality? What causes it? * What is gender identity? * Define transgender * What are gender roles? How do they develop? * Social learning theory * Gender schema theory * How do hormones influence our sexuality? * What are the four stages of the human sexual response cycle? * What are STIs, and how can they be prevented? * What factors influence adolescents' sexual activity and contraceptive use? * Discuss the roles of external and internal stimuli in sexual arousal * What is sexual orientation? * How do nature and nurture work together to create sexual orientation? * What is evolutionary psychology, and how does it explain human sexuality and gender roles? * Summarize the arguments against evolutionary psychology's explanations Chapter 5: Sensation and Perception * What is sensation? What is perception? How do they differ? * What is the process of transduction? * What is psychophysics? * What are absolute thresholds and difference...
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...prolonged use, learners will eventually achieve proficiency in the target language. Nurture • People are born “tabula rasa” (or blank slate) and become who they are through the course of their lives alone alone. • Students need to be taught their language. Naturists vs. Nurturists vs • Noam Chomsky oa C o s y • Stephen Krashen • Gardner • • • • Vygotsky ygots y Piaget Pavlov Skinner The Intelligence Quotient (IQ) • Test created in 1905 to predict which students would benefit from teaching. • Attempts to objectively measure “intelligence” intelligence • Scores are given as numbers that show the test taker’s results relative to others. • When adjusted for age, a person’s IQ generally does not vary greatly over the course of their life. • IQ tests can be given on various skills (linguistic, math, etc) Nurture Theories (Skinner) Behaviorism B h i i • Knowledge and Linguistic ability results from stimulus-response conditioning. • Focus is on controlling behavior not behavior, cognitive processes. •C Concerned only with d l ith observable/measurable behavior. Nurture Methods The Audio-lingual M th d Th A di li l Method • Based on Behaviorism – Positive reinforcement of desired production – Emphasis on “correctness” correctness – Seeks to create language habits – Repetition Nature Theories (Chomsky) Universall Grammar U i G • Humans are born with a Language Acquisition Device that allows us to understand...
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...measurement, he got psychology off to a good start. Wundt’s ideas were carried to the United States by Edward Titchener who called Wundt’s ideas structuralism and tried to analyze the structure of mental life into basic “elements” or “building blocks” (University of Phoenix, 2013). After Titchener, one of the first philosophies developed was Functionalism by American scholar William James. James helped establish the field as a separate discipline. The functionalists admired Charles Darwin, who deduced that creatures evolve in ways that favor survival. Functionalism spurred the rise of industrial/organizational psychology, the study of people at work (University of Phoenix, 2013). Functionalism and structuralism were soon challenged by behaviorism, the study of observable behavior. Behaviorist John B. Watson believed that introspection is unscientific precisely because there is no way to settle disagreements between observers. These observations were objective because they did not involve introspecting on subjective experience (University of Phoenix, 2013). The best-known behaviorist, B. F. Skinner, believed that our actions are controlled by rewards and punishments. As a “radical behaviorist,” Skinner also believed...
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