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MENGAPA KEKEBALAN BAKTERI TERHADAP ANTIBIOTIK BUKANLAH CONTOH PERISTIWA EVOLUSI?

Satu konsep biologi yang dicoba-sajikan sebagai bukti teori evolusi oleh para evolusionis adalah kekebalan atau daya tahan bakteri terhadap antibiotik. Banyak sumber evolusionis menyebutkan bahwa kekebalan terhadap antibiotik adalah sebuah contoh perkembangan makhluk hidup melalui mutasi yang menguntungkan. Hal serupa juga dikatakan tentang serangga yang menjadi kebal terhadap insektisida seperti DDT.
Akan tetapi, kaum evolusionis pun salah dalam hal ini.
Antibiotik adalah “molekul pembunuh” yang dihasilkan mikroorganisme untuk melawan mikroorganisme lain. Antibiotik pertama adalah penisilin, yang ditemukan oleh Alexander Flemming pada 1928. Flemming menyadari bahwa jamur (seringkali ditemukan seperti bubuk atau benang-benang di permukaan bahan organik sudah lama – penerj.) menghasilkan molekul yang mematikan bakteri Staphylococcus, dan penemuan ini merupakan titik balik dalam dunia obat-obatan. Antibiotik yang diambil dari berbagai organisme digunakan untuk melawan bakteri, dan berhasil.
Tidak lama kemudian, hal baru ditemukan. Seiring dengan waktu, bakteri mengembangkan kekebalan terhadap antibiotik. Mekanisme kerjanya adalah sebagai berikut: sebagian besar bakteri yang diberi antibiotik akan mati, tetapi sebagian lain yang tidak terpengaruh oleh antibiotik tersebut, akan dengan cepat berkembang biak dan membentuk populasi yang sama dengan yang sebelumnya. Sehingga, seluruh populasi menjadi kebal terhadap antibiotik.
Para evolusionis menampilkan hal ini sebagai “evolusi bakteri dengan cara beradaptasi terhadap lingkungan”.
Akan tetapi, kenyataan sebenarnya jauh berbeda dengan penafsiran dangkal ini. Salah seorang ilmuwan yang telah melakukan penelitian mendalam di bidang ini adalah ahli biofisika Israel bernama Lee Spetner, yang juga dikenal dengan bukunya Not by Chance yang terbit tahun 1997. Spetner menyatakan, kekebalan bakteri terjadi karena dua mekanisme; namun tak satu pun dari keduanya merupakan bukti teori evolusi. Kedua mekanisme ini adalah: 1. Perpindahan (transfer) gen-gen kekebalan yang sudah ada pada bakteri. 2. Tumbuhnya kekebalan sebagai akibat hilangnya data genetis karena mutasi.
Mekanisme yang pertama dibahas Profesor Spetner dalam artikel yang terbit tahun 2001:
Sejumlah mikroorganisme dilengkapi dengan gen-gen yang memberikan kekebalan terhadap antibiotik-antibiotik ini. Kekebalan ini dapat berupa kemampuan merombak molekul antibiotik tersebut, atau mengeluarkannya dari sel … [O]rganisma yang memiliki gen-gen ini dapat memindahkannya ke bakteri lain, sehingga menjadikan bakteri tersebut kebal juga. Walaupun mekanisme kekebalan tersebut bersifat khusus terhadap satu antibiotik tertentu, kebanyakan bakteri patogen telah … berhasil mengumpulkan beberapa perangkat gen yang memberikan bakteri-bakteri tersebut kekebalan terhadap beberapa jenis antibiotik.69
Spetner lalu melanjutkan dan berkata bahwa hal ini bukanlah “bukti yang mendukung evolusi”:
Perolehan kekebalan terhadap antibiotik dengan cara ini… bukanlah sesuatu yang dapat menjadi contoh dari mutasi yang diperlukan untuk menjelaskan peristiwa Evolusi… Perubahan genetik yang dapat mendukung teori ini semestinya tidak hanya menambahkan informasi pada genom bakteri. Perubahan genetik ini harus pula menambahkan informasi baru pada biokosmos. Perpindahan gen secara horisontal hanya menyebabkan penyebaran gen-gen yang sudah ada pada sejumlah spesies.70
Jadi, kita tak dapat berbicara tentang evolusi apa pun di sini, karena tidak ada informasi genetis baru dihasilkan: yang terjadi hanyalah informasi genetis yang sudah ada sekedar dipindahkan di antara bakteri.
Jenis kekebalan yang kedua, yang tercipta sebagai hasil mutasi, juga bukan contoh evolusi. Spetner menulis:
… [S]uatu mikroorganisme kadang dapat memperoleh kekebalan terhadap suatu antibiotik melalui penggantian acak sebuah nukleotida… Streptomisin, yang ditemukan Selman Waksman dan Albert Schatz, dan pertama kali dilaporkan di tahun 1944, adalah antibiotik yang dapat menjadikan bakteri dapat memperoleh kekebalan dengan cara itu. Tetapi, walaupun mutasi yang mereka alami dalam proses ini bersifat menguntungkan bagi mikroorganisme yang diberi streptomisin, mutasi tersebut tidak dapat menjadi contoh dari jenis mutasi yang diperlukan untuk mendukung Teori Neo-Darwinian (Neo Darwinian Theory atau NDT). Jenis mutasi yang memunculkan kekebalan terhadap streptomisin terjadi pada ribosom, dan menghilangkan kemampuan sel untuk mengenali dan berikatan dengan molekul antibiotik.71
Dalam bukunya Not by Chance, Spetner mengibaratkan situasi ini dengan gangguan pada hubungan antara kunci dan lubangnya. Streptomisin, ibarat kunci yang cocok dengan lubangnya, mencengkeram ribosom suatu bakteri dan menjadikannya tidak aktif. Mutasi menyebabkan hal sebaliknya, menguraikan ribosom, sehingga streptomisin tidak dapat menyerang ribosom. Walaupun ini ditafsirkan sebagai “pembentukan kekebalan bakteri terhadap streptomisin”, bakteri tidaklah diuntungkan, malah sebaliknya. Spetner menulis:
Perubahan ini, yang terjadi pada permukaan ribosom mikroorganisme, mencegah molekul streptomisin untuk menempel dan melaksanakan fungsi antibiotiknya. Ternyata, terurainya ribosom adalah berupa hilangnya struktur khusus, dan ini berarti hilangnya informasi. Intinya adalah, Evolusi… tidak dapat dicapai dengan mutasi jenis ini, tak menjadi soal betapa pun banyaknya. Evolusi tidak dapat terjadi melalui timbunan peristiwa mutasi yang hanya merombak struktur khusus.72
Singkatnya, sebuah mutasi yang terjadi pada ribosom bakteri telah menjadikan bakteri tersebut kebal terhadap streptomisin. Alasannya adalah “rusak atau hilangnya bagian” ribosom akibat mutasi. Jadi, tidak ada informasi genetis baru yang ditambahkan. Sebaliknya, struktur ribosom terurai, yang berarti, bakteri menjadi “cacat”. (Juga, telah ditemukan bahwa ribosom pada bakteri yang telah mengalami mutasi tidak berfungsi penuh seperti ribosom pada bakteri yang normal.) Karena “cacat” ini mencegah menempelnya antibiotik pada ribosom, maka terjadilah “kekebalan terhadap antibiotik”.
Akhirnya, tidak terdapat contoh mutasi yang “mengembangkan informasi genetis”. Para evolusionis, yang ingin menyajikan kekebalan terhadap antibiotik sebagai bukti evolusi, telah menangani masalah ini dengan tidak sungguh-sungguh, sehingga mereka salah.
Sama halnya dengan terjadinya kekebalan serangga terhadap DDT dan insektisida sejenis. Pada umumnya, gen-gen kekebalan yang sudah ada, digunakan. Ahli biologi evolusioner, Francisco Ayala mengakui fakta ini, dan berkata: “Varian genetis yang dibutuhkan untuk terjadinya kekebalan terhadap jenis pestisida yang paling bervariasi sekali pun, tampaknya sudah ada dalam setiap populasi yang terkena senyawa-senyawa buatan manusia ini.”73 Contoh lain yang dijelaskan dengan mutasi, seperti halnya mutasi ribosom yang telah diceritakan di atas, adalah fenomena yang menyebabkan “berkurangnya informasi genetis” pada serangga.
Dalam kasus ini, mekanisme kekebalan pada bakteri dan serangga tidak bisa dinyatakan sebagai bukti kebenaran teori evolusi. Hal ini berlaku karena teori evolusi menegaskan bahwa makhluk hidup berkembang melalui mutasi. Namun, Spetner menjelaskan bahwa kekebalan antibiotik maupun fenomena biologis lainnya bukanlah isyarat adanya mutasi semacam itu:
Mutasi-mutasi yang diperlukan bagi terjadinya makro-evolusi belum pernah teramati. Tidak ada mutasi acak – yang dapat menjadi bukti mutasi yang dibutuhkan Teori Neo-Darwinis – pada tingkat molekuler, yang telah menambahkan sedikit pun informasi. Pertanyaan yang saya ajukan adalah: Apakah mutasi yang telah diamati merupakan jenis yang diperlukan untuk mendukung teori ini? Ternyata jawabnya adalah TIDAK! 74

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HUBUNGAN APAKAH YANG TERDAPAT ANTARA PENCIPTAAN DAN ILMU PENGETAHUAN?

Seperti telah ditunjukkan dalam semua pertanyaan yang telah kami paparkan sejauh ini, teori evolusi benar-benar bertentangan dengan berbagai penemuan ilmiah. Teori ini, yang lahir pada saat tingkat ilmu pengetahuan masih terbelakang di abad ke-19, telah digugurkan oleh berbagai penemuan ilmiah secara berturut-turut.
Kaum evolusionis, yang secara membabi-buta mendukung teori tersebut, mencari jalan keluar dengan ungkapan dusta, karena tidak ada lagi dasar ilmiah yang tersisa. Yang paling sering dilakukan adalah penggunaan ucapan yang seringkali dilontarkan “penciptaan adalah keyakinan atau iman, jadi bukan bagian dari ilmu pengetahuan”. Selanjutnya, pernyataan ini menegaskan bahwa evolusi adalah teori ilmiah, sedangkan penciptaan hanyalah sebuah keyakinan. Namun, pengulangan ucapan “evolusi adalah ilmiah, sedangkan penciptaan adalah keyakinan” sebenarnya berasal dari sudut pandang yang salah. Mereka yang terus mengulanginya adalah orang-orang yang mengacaukan ilmu pengetahuan dengan filsafat materialis. Mereka yakin bahwa ilmu pengetahuan harus tetap berada dalam batas-batas materialisme, dan mereka yang tidak materialis tidak berhak membuat pernyataan apa pun. Namun, ilmu pengetahuan itu sendiri menolak materialisme.

Mengkaji materi tidak sama dengan menjadi seorang materialis

Marilah, secara singkat, kita tentukan arti materialisme agar masalah ini dapat kita pelajari dengan lebih rinci. Materialisme adalah filsafat yang sudah ada sejak zaman Yunani Kuno. Dasar filsafat ini adalah gagasan yang menyatakan bahwa yang ada hanyalah materi. Berdasarkan filsafat materialis, materi sudah ada sejak awal, dan akan selalu ada untuk selamanya. Tidak ada sesuatu apa pun selain materi. Namun, pernyataan ini tidaklah ilmiah, karena tidak bisa diuji dalam percobaan dan pengamatan. Ini hanyalah suatu keyakinan, suatu dogma.
Akan tetapi, dogma ini berbaur dengan ilmu pengetahuan di abad ke-19, bahkan menjadi landasan berpijak bagi ilmu pengetahuan. Walaupun begitu, ilmu pengetahuan tidak harus menerima materialisme. Ilmu pengetahuan mengkaji alam dan jagat raya, dan hasil kajian tersebut tidaklah dibatasi oleh penggolongan filsafat apa pun.
Menghadapi hal ini, beberapa orang materialis sering membela diri dengan sekedar permainan kata. Mereka berkata, “Materi adalah satu-satunya bahan kajian ilmu pengetahuan, karena itu, ilmu pengetahuan haruslah bersifat materialis.” Ya, ilmu pengetahuan hanya mengkaji materi, tetapi “mengkaji materi” adalah hal yang sangat berbeda dengan “menjadi seorang materialis”. Sebabnya adalah, saat kita mengkaji materi, kita sadar bahwa materi mengandung pengetahuan dan rancangan yang begitu dahsyat, sehingga mustahil dihasilkan oleh materi itu sendiri. Kita paham bahwa pengetahuan dan rancangan tersebut adalah hasil karya sebuah kecerdasan, walaupun kita tidak bisa melihatnya secara langsung.
Sebagai contoh, bayangkanlah sebuah gua. Kita tidak tahu apakah gua itu pernah dimasuki orang atau belum. Jika, saat kita memasuki gua itu, yang ditemukan hanyalah tanah, debu dan batu, dapat kita simpulkan bahwa di sana tak ada apa-apa selain materi yang tersebar secara acak. Namun, apabila di dinding gua terdapat lukisan-lukisan yang bagus dengan warna-warni mengagumkan, dapat kita duga bahwa ada makhluk cerdas yang pernah masuk di gua itu sebelum kita. Mungkin kita tidak dapat langsung melihat makhluk itu, tetapi keberadaannya dapat kita simpulkan dari apa yang dihasilkannya.

Ilmu pengetahuan menentang materialisme

Ilmu pengetahuan mengkaji alam ini dengan cara yang sama seperti dijelaskan dalam contoh di atas. Jika semua rancangan di alam ini dapat dijelaskan dengan penyebab-penyebab yang bersifat materi semata, maka ilmu pengetahuan memperkuat materialisme. Namun, ilmu pengetahuan modern telah mengungkapkan bahwa di alam ini terdapat suatu rancangan yang tak bisa dijelaskan dengan penyebab bersifat materi, dan bahwa segenap materi mengandung suatu rancangan yang diciptakan oleh Sang Pencipta.
Contohnya, semua percobaan dan pengamatan membuktikan bahwa materi itu sendiri tidak dapat menghasilkan kehidupan. Karena itu, makhluk hidup pastilah hasil dari sebuah penciptaan metafisik. Semua percobaan evolusionis ke arah ini berakhir dengan kegagalan. Kehidupan tidak mungkin diciptakan dari materi tak-hidup. Ahli biologi evolusionis Andrew Scott membuat pengakuan berikut mengenai masalah tersebut dalam jurnal terkenal New Scientist:
Ambillah sejumlah materi, panaskan sambil diaduk, dan tunggulah. Itulah Genesis versi modern. Gaya-gaya “dasar”, yakni gravitasi, elektromagnetisme, serta gaya ikat inti atom yang kuat dan lemah dianggap sebagai gaya yang menyempurnakan proses tersebut… Tetapi, seberapa jauhkah kisah yang disusun sangat baik ini telah benar-benar terbukti, dan seberapa besarkah yang masih berupa dugaan yang penuh harap? Sebenarnya, mekanisme dari hampir seluruh tahapan utama, dari zat-zat kimiawi pembentuk, hingga sel-sel yang paling awal diketahui, masih menjadi bahan persengketaan, atau, kalau tidak, pastilah merupakan kebingungan yang menyeluruh. 75
Akar kehidupan didasarkan pada dugaan dan perdebatan karena dogma materialis bersikeras menyatakan bahwa kehidupan merupakan hasil dari materi. Akan tetapi, fakta-fakta ilmiah menunjukkan bahwa materi tidak memiliki kekuatan seperti itu. Profesor Fred Hoyle, ahli matematika dan astronomi yang dianugerahi gelar kebangsawanan untuk sumbangsihnya bagi ilmu pengetahuan, memberi ulasan berikut tentang hal ini:
Jika terdapat sifat mendasar materi yang melalui suatu cara dapat mendorong sistem organik mengarah pada terbentuknya kehidupan, maka keberadaannya haruslah dapat diperlihatkan di laboratorium. Misalnya, seseorang bisa saja menggunakan bak kolam renang sebagai ganti “ramuan sop purba”. Isilah bak itu dengan zat-zat kimia non-biologis mana pun yang Anda sukai. Pompakan gas ke atasnya, atau ke dalamnya, sesuka Anda, dan sinarilah dengan radiasi jenis apa pun yang Anda kehendaki. Biarkan percobaan ini berlangsung selama setahun, dan lihatlah ada berapa dari 2000 tersebut (protein yang dibuat dan dihasilkan sel hidup) yang muncul dalam bak ramuan itu. Saya akan memberi jawabannya, dan ini akan menghemat waktu, tenaga dan biaya melakukan percobaan secara sungguhan. Anda tak akan mendapatkan apa pun, selain (mungkin) endapan berlendir terapung yang terdiri atas asam-asam amino serta zat-zat kimia organik sederhana lainnya.76
Sebenarnya, materialisme sedang menghadapi kesulitan yang lebih buruk. Materi tak bisa membentuk kehidupan, walaupun diberi waktu serta digabungkan dengan pengetahuan manusia – apalagi tanpa faktor-faktor tersebut.
Kebenaran, yang baru saja kita tinjau sekilas adalah kebenaran bahwa materi itu sendiri tidak dapat merancang dan tidak berpengetahuan. Namun, jagat raya dan makhluk hidup di dalamnya mengandung rancangan dan pengetahuan yang luar biasa kompleks. Ini menunjukkan bahwa rancangan dan pengetahuan dalam jagat raya serta makhluk hidup adalah karya Pencipta yang memiliki kekuasaan serta pengetahuan yang tak terhingga – Pencipta yang telah ada sebelum materi itu sendiri ada, serta menguasai dan mengendalikannya.
Jika kita teliti dengan cermat, inilah kesimpulan yang ilmiah sepenuhnya. Ini bukanlah “keyakinan”, melainkan kebenaran yang diperoleh sebagai hasil pengamatan akan jagat raya dan makhluk hidup yang menghuninya. Karena itulah, pendapat evolusionis “Evolusi adalah ilmiah, sedangkan penciptaan adalah keyakinan di luar wilayah ilmu pengetahuan” merupakan tipuan yang dangkal. Memang, pada abad ke-19, materialisme dikacaukan dengan ilmu pengetahuan, dan ilmu pengetahuan terbawa ke luar jalur oleh dogma materialis. Namun, perkembangan selanjutnya, di abad ke-20 dan ke-21, telah sepenuhnya menggugurkan keyakinan kuno itu. Dan, kebenaran penciptaan, yang tadinya terhalang materialisme, kini pun tampak. Seperti jelas dinyatakan majalah terkenal Newsweek, dalam edisi 27 Juli 1998-nya yang bersejarah, dengan berita utama yang berjudul Science Finds God (Ilmu Pengetahuan Menemukan Tuhan) – di balik penipuan materialis, ilmu pengetahuan menemukan Tuhan, Pencipta alam semesta dengan segala sesuatu yang ada di dalamnya.

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Charles Darwin on Darwinism

...Charles Darwin One of the most famous names in science and in the economy today, is Charles Darwin. Darwin is best known for his contributions in science; his famous theory of evolution. He also contributed to the market and command economy with his belief, "survival of the fittest." Charles Darwin's contribution to science has been a very controversial one. He stated that each generation will improve adaptively over the preceding generations, and this gradual and continuous process is the source of the evolution of species. Natural selection is only part of Darwin's theory. He also introduced the concept that all related organisms are descended from common ancestors. His theory was first announced in 1858 in a paper. Darwin's complete theory was published in 1859, in On the Origin of Species. This book is often referred to as "the book that shook the world. The Origin sold out on the first day of publication and subsequently went through six editions. Charles Darwin also contributed to the Market economy with his belief "survival of the fittest." In a free enterprise system, it is believed that the best will survive while the less efficient will collapse if the market is allowed to work without government interference. In a market economy, since the government has very little control of the businesses, the companies must work their hardest and come out with good products that will outsell the ones of their competition. Social Darwinism basically means that the strong...

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Darwin And Dawkin's Theories Compared)

...Natural Selection (Darwin and Dawkin’s Theories Compared) Evolution is the process by which different kinds of living organisms are thought to have developed and diversified from earlier forms during the history of the earth. Evolution can be classified more as a theory, although there is scientific evidence supporting the idea. Charles Darwin was best known for his work as a naturalist, developing a theory of evolution to explain biological change. Fisher noted, “Darwin unveiled his theory in 1859 in his book On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection. He was certainly not the first to theorize that man was descended from animals, although Darwin was able to demonstrate the scientific basis for evolution.” Charles Darwin's views and beliefs on evolution is a very controversial issue, because it goes against what is stated in the Bible. Francis Bacon, and English philosopher, had four idols which explained human’s feelings and beliefs. Although, Dawkins champions about nature would be warmly received by...

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